This chapter focuses on topics in syntax. It first introduces a general but important topic—part of speech—and how linguists determine part of speech in general and for Chinese. It then delves deeper to examine syntactic features of Chinese nouns and noun phrases. Measure words and classifiers are distinguished; types of classifiers and dialectal variations in classifiers are discussed. In describing Chinese verbs and verb phrases, important notions such as verb arguments, syntactic and semantic roles, verbal complements and verbal aspects are introduced. Syntactic behaviors of Chinese adjectives and verbs are also compared. Finally, this chapter discusses the word order of Mandarin.

This chapter focuses on larger syntactic units, primarily sentences. It first discusses major sentence types in Mandarin (simple vs. complex sentences). Then it describes four types of sentences based on communicative functions, and the modal particles which are attached to different types of sentences. The chapter also describes the syntactic, semantic and discourse features of the bǎ and bèi constructions, and their socio-pragmatic functions.

Before we can talk about how we learn, use, and lose language, we need to define what it is, and what it isn’t. Over the centuries, many people have attempted to describe language. In this chapter was ask: what is language? This is a simple enough question although the answer is much more complicated, and intriguing, than it seems at first. The question of “what is language?” isn’t something we can just sum up in a single pithy sentence. Language is a system of communication, but it’s so much more than that. Language is multi-faceted. It involves signs and symbols, smaller and bigger segments, dialects and accents, and also writing and signing. This chapter serves as a primer to introduce us to the basic underlying principles of language sceince, so we can now talk the talk.

Heritage language speakers are second language (L2) speakers of a sociopolitically majority language. Their native heritage language is a minority language which typically develops under linguistic pressure from the majority L2 and eventually becomes secondary and weaker than the L2. In the past decade, research on heritage language speakers has investigated the degree of acquisition of different aspects of the heritage grammar and how the process and outcome of heritage language acquisition are similar to and different from adult L2 acquisition. Advances in the acquisition of heritage languages have contributed significantly to inform key questions in L2 acquisition. This chapter discusses the latest research on how L2 learners’ and heritage speakers’ exposure and use of the L2 and L1 affect the processing and acquisition the L2 and the heritage language and points to areas in need of further research.

A survey of phrase and sentence grammar, including discussion of the difference between grammaticality and acceptability, parts of speech-word classes, word order, case marking, verbal inflection, constituency, structural ambiguity, argument structure, anaphora, quantifiers, and negation.

Music rhythm and speech rhythm share acoustic, temporal and syntactic similarities, and neuroscience research has shown that similar areas and networks in the brain are recruited to process both types of signals. Rhythm is a core predictive element for both music and speech, allowing for facilitated processing of upcoming, predicted elements. The combined study of music and speech rhythm processing can be particularly insightful, considering the stronger regularity and predictability of musical rhythm. Although speech rhythm is less regular, it still contains regularities, notably at syllabic and prosodic levels. In this chapter, we outline different research lines investigating connections between music and speech rhythm processing, including the recently proposed processing rhythm in speech and music framework, as well as music rhythm interventions and stimulations that aim to improve speech signal processing both in the short term and the long term. Implications for developmental language disorders and future research perspectives are outlined.

On phrasal timescales, spontaneous conversational speech is not very rhythmic. Instead, periods of speech activity are intermittent: Words tend to come in short bursts and are often interrupted with hesitations. Nonetheless, it has been suggested that there is a production mechanism that generates phrasal rhythmicity in speech. This chapter examines the empirical evidence for such a mechanism and concludes that speakers do not directly control the timing of phrases. Instead, it is argued that temporal patterns associated with phrases are epiphenomena of processes involved in conceptual-syntactic organization. A model is presented in which coherency-monitoring systems govern the initiation and interruption of speech activity. Hesitations arise when conceptual or syntactic systems fail to achieve sufficiently ordered states. The model provides a mechanism to account for intermittency on phrasal timescales.

Chapter 5 deals with Linear A syntax (word order) and orthography (spelling). The chapter begins by comparing several examples of the so-called “offering formula,” a standardized string of words—most likely a dedicatory sentence—found on many ritual vessels, but a sentence that differs in subtle ways from vessel to vessel. I use the differences between the various examples of the “offering formula” to discern which words are most likely to be the subject, verb, and object of the sentence. This exercise indicates a high likelihood that the Minoan language is a verb-initial language (i.e., one in which the verb ordinarily comes first in the sentence), which in turn enables us to draw additional important conclusions about the Minoan language based on the way in which most verb-initial languages behave. The chapter ends with some observations about the apparent way in which the Minoans spelled words in Linear A, leading to the interesting conclusion that the spelling-rules they used in Central and Eastern Crete most closely align with the spelling-rules used in Linear B and Cypriot Syllabic, respectively, a conclusion that is backed up by archaeological evidence.

This chapter explores the role of linguistics in language teacher preparation. Against a profound demographic shift currently underway in the US, it provides a rationale for preparing ESL and bilingual teachers who are well-equipped to work with diverse students in K-12 contexts. Crucially, the chapter explores two key points: the value of linguistic analysis and an equity-based approach to language teaching. Linguistic analysis allows teachers to recognize patterns in the language of their students; in doing so, teachers can isolate recurring errors, recognize where their students are in the learning process, and better target their teaching to address the errors and move students forward. The chapter also shows how linguistics training helps teachers understand language variation, dialects, and the role of society, especially for languages with less social power and prestige. It argues that teachers’ awareness of harmful language ideologies helps combat societal inequities that use language as a proxy for discrimination and subjugation. The chapter ends with suggestions for further reading and discussion questions for teachers and teacher educators.

The functional-typological approach to language recognizes that language features are shaped by functional forces: the strengths and limitations of human cognition and perception in creative tension with communitive needs. The results of this tension are evident in the phonology as well as in the morphosyntax. A functional-typological understanding of language reveals what features are likely to be common to different languages, as well as what features are likely to co-occur in the same language. This predictive knowledge prepares the teacher for what she will encounter in students L1, and helps her prepare students for what they will encounter in L2. Awareness of typologically less common features in particular will help the teacher to know where special effort may be needed to help students meet the challenge. An understanding of functional forces such as iconicity, metaphorical extension and language change also allows the L2 teacher to explain how a particular feature is motivated and not merely arbitrary, helping the learner to see how those facts make sense and thereby making them easier to learn.

Drawing on their classroom experiences, five secondary school language educators present how training in linguistics has positively impacted their pedagogical practices and increased student engagement, enjoyment, and motivation. These teachers of French, German, Latin, and Spanish describe how they bring linguistics into the L2 classroom, giving concrete examples of how the metalinguistic and social awareness that comes with “doing linguistics” can help students learn new languages by drawing on their L1 strengths, as well as gain an appreciation of the beauty and complexity of language, contributing to a welcoming classroom for students of all language backgrounds. These examples, alongside the student feedback described in the chapter, demonstrate that training teachers in linguistics has the potential to keep students curious and motivated, improving both student retention and learning outcomes in secondary L2 classes.

Chapter 2 provides a thorough definition of “language” and a broad overview of the field of linguistics and its primary subfields.

Two different languages may make use of the same grammatical categories, such as number or tense, but one language may make distinctions within that category that the other does not, or express those distinctions with more complex coding than the other. It is even possible that a grammatical category expressed in one language is entirely absent from the other. Second language learning thus requires a comparative approach. The learner must understand the rules and structures in both L1 and L2 order to identify how the languages differ from each other. This requires a “metalanguage” for thinking and speaking about language structure. An understanding of basic morphosyntactic concepts provides just such a metalanguage. Using comparative case studies with data from English, Spanish, German, and Norwegian, this chapter demonstrates the usefulness for second language learning of morphosyntactic concepts such as tense, modality, aspect, finite, infinitive, participle, imperfective, past prospective, gerund, nominalization, definite, indefinite, reflexive, modifier, argument, constituent, complement, dependent clause, relative clause, conjunction, and subordinator.