Since the initial description of catatonia in 1874, three different distinct clinical and neurobiological frameworks have emerged. The first emphasizes psychomotor and affective aspects, building on Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum’s legacy. The second focuses on motor symptoms alone, influenced by the work of Emil Kraepelin and Eugen Bleuler. The third introduces the Wernicke–Kleist–Leonhard concept of psychomotor abnormalities such as catatonia as a significant neuropsychiatric framework. This chapter critically examines all three frameworks from both scientific and clinical perspectives, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages in research and treatment. The chapter will also delve into common synergies between neurobiological and clinical studies, discussing how these can inform the day-to-day management of catatonia. Furthermore, we will analyze the current classification systems of DSM-5 and ICD-11 and their relation to the described frameworks, with a focus on their strengths and weaknesses in diagnosing catatonia. Finally, this chapter will introduce a novel approach that links neural correlates and subjective experience of catatonia through their spatial (space) and temporal (time) patterns. This chapter will provide a comprehensive overview of diagnostic approaches and their clinical implications.

Before returning to the Philippines, MacArthur and his subordinates first had to forge the instrument that would propel the Allies along the road to Tokyo. These forces next had to learn how to survive in a forbidding and alien environment. Then they had to learn how to fight and coordinate their efforts among the various arms and services. By the end of the New Guinea campaign, MacArthur’s forces had honed their capabilities in amphibious operations and island warfare. MacArthur found commanders of his air, naval, and ground forces who were competent and loyal. MacArthur and his subordinate commanders created the powerful joint team that would propel US forces back to the Philippines. With the Bataan Gang at its core, SWPA headquarters had grown from scratch to become a robust theater staff. Also built from humble beginnings, the Central Bureau had cracked Japanese codes, providing MacArthur and his key subordinate leaders with invaluable intelligence. SWPA had created a logistics structure that could support operations over oceanic distances. Allied medical personnel had largely eliminated malaria as an impediment to future operations.

A sense of curiosity and active citizenship can be nurtured in children from a young age. Through a range of immersive and place-based experiences, children can start to make sense of the world around them and demonstrate their social agency. The Australian Curriculum: History focuses on developing an awareness of key features of family and local history and community heritage from Foundation to Year 2. Its key purpose is to make early historical inquiry meaningful, memorable, creative and exploratory. Civics and Citizenship education can help to provide opportunities for children to express their ideas and understand their communities. A dynamic, multiperspectival and affective understanding of the past, and its relationship with the present, is essential in a democracy.

Writings on hip hop education from hip-hop’s golden age onwards have often concerned themselves with the relationship between educational institutions, pedagogic practices and spaces and the vernacular identities and multicultural literacies of their disadvantaged students. This parallels and is related to the contentious educational debates that erupted during the so-called US culture wars of the 1990s concerning race, cultural identity, relevance and value. Accordingly, the chapter argues that a chief source of hip-hop education’s legitimacy derives from an abiding insistence amongst its practitioners and advocates that the more ostensibly “positive” and “conscious” examples of rap, in keeping with the black cultural continuum, express hip-hop’s inherent didacticism. I describe and examine these issues and their methodological and pedagogic claims – past and present – against a backdrop of moral panic that has long dogged rap music but also supplied it with critical impetus. The final section of the chapter offers a case-study of a recent British hip-hop education programme that seeks to make use of UK drill music to develop the capacities of educationally disaffected school-age young people.

Discontent in Britain’s Thirteen Colonies had built to open violence by the mid-1770s, much of it occurring in and around Boston. (See Map 19.) A lack of representation and perceptions that British leaders pursued overbearing policies because they were indifferent or even hostile to the plight of the inhabitants pushed ever more colonists towards open rebellion. In response, the tools Britain possessed to confront its colonial troubles were limited by the nature of its government and the few instruments at its disposal. These included the army and navy, but their use at Boston only exacerbated tensions. Fighting flared on 19 April 1775 when British soldiers attempted to seize munitions at Concord, Massachusetts. Along the way, at Lexington, shots were fired and several colonists were killed. Afterwards, colonists sniped at and harried the British on their return to Boston. In the wake of Lexington and Concord, American militia gathered around Boston, surrounding its British garrison. Nearly two months after the outbreak of hostilities, the Americans seized and fortified the strategic Charlestown Peninsula overlooking Boston harbour. In response, the British stormed the position in what became known as the battle of Bunker Hill: the first major battle of the American Revolution. At the end of the day, the British held the field, but at the cost of nearly a quarter of their army in Boston.

Chapter 3 explores the “The Metaphors We Read With.” Here we find books rhetorically manufacturing a new kind of consciousness, as the affordances of text technologies provide a way to describe human experience. This chapter shows that, whether it is poets claiming love “is printed on my heart,” or physicians claiming a man’s sickness is his “comma” and not his “period,” or a botanist saying an animal is a plant “bound up in one volume,” the symbols of the book reshaped the intellectual and linguistic makeup of English culture. Books have affordances, which in turn provide figurative resources for writers.

Focusing on the same period as Chapter 2, Chapter 3 treats economic history. It engages with recent historiographical debates regarding the late medieval economy, especially as those debates pertain to Catalonia. This chapter argues for a keenly felt decline, perceived by contemporaries and corroborated by the best available quantitative evidence, in the dominant sector of Perpignan’s economy, namely, cloth manufacturing. This chapter also argues for a surprising similarity in the Nou regiment’s and the Nova forma’s economic policies. Notwithstanding their different social profiles, both regimes sought to revive production and prosperity through traditional protectionism and anti-fraud regulation. This chapter argues that the surprising similarities in the regimes’ economic policies, and their inability to match the inventiveness displayed in matters of municipal government, reflect the power of cultural assumptions so deeply rooted that the desire for newness could not prevail against them: that production and prosperity were functions of honour; and that the greatest source of dishonour was fraud, which the town aspired to stamp out.

Practice single-best-answer questions on the eyes and vision, representing all presentations and conditions listed by the GMC in their content map for the MLA AKT, and referred to by the keywords in this book. All questions are specifically tailored to the level of knowledge required for foundation clinical practice in the UK, and comprehensive in breadth, separating out the different conditions and presentations listed by the GMC, and covering them all. Not only are correct answers provided, but also explanations for all the available answer options. Every question is supported by an individual topic in the companion book which is specifically authored to cover the knowledge required for foundation clinical practice in the UK.

Sub-Saharan Africa was on the threshold of a new and violent era in the second half of the fifteenth century. The ensuing four centuries would see innovative forms of military organisation, novel cultures of militarism underpinning such systems, and new wars, as well as new ways of fighting them. There were often different factors at work in different regions; the presence of external drivers was a key distinction between Atlantic Africa and the rest of the continent, for instance. However, warfare across early modern Africa had much in common, in terms of the aim to control factor endowments, to maximise population, and to construct enduring ideological systems, whether territorially or culturally defined. In some ways – certainly in terms of the underlying trends and broad contours of Africa’s military history – the existence or absence of external intrusion is a distraction, however significant it was in particular places at particular times. The outcome of the processes in motion between c. 1450 and c. 1850 was an expansion in military scale, the professionalisation of soldiery, the adoption of new weaponry, and the militarisation of the polity – whether ‘state-based’ or otherwise. The militarisation of African polities and societies was an ongoing process between the fifteenth and the nineteenth century, a period which in many ways witnessed the laying of the foundations of modern African political systems; this would culminate in a veritable military revolution in the nineteenth century, a transformation in the organisation and culture of violence, without which Europe’s later partition of the continent cannot properly be understood.

Grime music emerged at the turn of the millennium in the United Kingdom. Performed by MCs and DJs, it is a vital and vibrant form with unrelenting energy. This chapter focuses on live collective performance in grime music. In particular, it explores the spaces where grime is performed, paying attention to the specificity of these contexts, and their impact on group practice. It is split into three sections. Firstly, it positions grime as genre, demonstrating how antecedent forms—principally hip-hop and Jamaican dancehall—inform its collaborative, yet competitive nature. Secondly, it will offer an overview of these key arenas (radio, raves, record shops), unpacking how grime thrived within a “Black Public sphere” outside of heavy censorship and racialised policing of mainstream public fora. Finally, it will focus on a performance that captures grime’s improvisatory framework. Taken from 2007, this acclaimed “Birthday Set” for East London MC Ghetts possesses many hallmarks of grime performance. The analysis addresses competitiveness within MCs, intergeneric allusions (lyrical or otherwise), and the DJ’s technical cachet. This chapter therefore demonstrates dense interconnectivity within grime’s contexts for performance, offering insight into the ways in which the live domain acts as the pivotal ground for new creative work.

The subject areas that form the HASS learning area are founded on and around ‘values’, and values underpin everything we do in educational settings. This is not surprising, given that values are at the core of our thinking and actions. As human beings, we have core values to which we subscribe – things that we think are of importance and of worth. These values are diverse and influenced by a complex relationship between the individual and their social environment. As an example, consider the values listed by Burgh, Field and Freakley: friendship, security, health, education, beauty, art and wealth. You may disagree and think that holding one or more of the values listed would not in fact lead to a good life; or that an important value is missing from this list; that is, we may disagree that each of these values is of importance. The point, however, is that ‘[e]veryone has values, but there is not universal agreement about what is valuable’. In this chapter, the use of a community of inquiry will be explored as a means of supporting meaningful values inquiry in HASS. The community of inquiry is an approach that empowers learners to think critically about issues pertaining to values, ethics and social justice in a safe environment that promotes diversity and student voice.