Beer was a staple food in the Middle Ages and was brewed by monks. Over the centuries, an entire culture has developed in Germany around beer brewing, beer drinking, and the commercial serving of beer. This is also reflected in the diversity of beer types with 25 different beer styles and between 5,000 and 6,000 different types of beer in Germany alone. Moreover, special ‘beer gardens’ are popular places of consumption. The German Purity Laws date back to 1156 and were only lifted by the CJEU for imports.

This chapter provides insights from economic theory and empirical methods to determine if production of medical services in a firm is efficient. The concepts of a production function can indicate whether production is technically efficient and estimate the marginal contribution to revenue of each input (labor of different types, capital, etc.). With data on the prices or wages of these inputs, the manager can determine the profit-maximizing rate of use. A cost function can indicate whether there are economies of scale in quantity (somehow defined) and economies or diseconomies in scope. Examples from classic health economics literature are used to show that there was underuse of physician aides and other substitutes in office-based physician practices, that there are constant returns in scale in the production of hospital admissions, and that there are increased returns in emergency rooms. Caution in interpretation of variation in cost per unit output (of the type provided for Medicare in the Dartmouth Atlas) is offered.

This chapter introduces the problem of theorizing international organizations. It breaks down the problem to two parts: the structural relationship between international organizations and their members and conceptual relationship between these institutions and other entities in international law, including states and non-state actors. The first relationship concerns whether international organizations should be analyzed as legally distinct from their members. The second relationship relates to international organizations’ rights, obligations, and capacities in international law, assuming that they are legally distinguishable from their members. The chapter concludes by clarifying how advancing a doctrinal legal theory is understood by this book, as well as the methodology that will be employed in that regard.

Chapter 2 discusses Hegel’s understanding of the relationship between philosophy and reality, as well as the much-debated issue of whether the Philosophy of Right should be read as a normative enterprise. Focusing on the methodological argument outlined in the work’s preface and introduction, the chapter argues that Hegel is committed to a critical reconstruction of received reality, aimed at revealing the norms and institutions that best embody and promote human freedom. Moreover, it is claimed that this critical effort comprises a conceptual and a temporal dimension, corresponding to two different argumentative moments: the progression leading from the stage of ‘abstract right’ to that of the state, which deals with the immanent development of the concept of freedom, and the book’s final section, ‘world history’, which charts the historical actualization of the concept of freedom. While most interpreters tend to focus on the former dimension, the chapter shows that the latter is just as important to understand Hegel’s overall position.

The Postscript seeks to provide a practical illustration of beer recipe design, ingredient selection, and the brewing process. To that end, a beer was designed and brewed specifically for this book – the ‘Law Beer’. The aim was for this beer to represent something from each of the countries in which the six authors live – Australia, Belgium, Czech Republic, and Germany. Each of these countries has made significant contributions to the world of beer. The recipe uese malt from Germany, yeast from Belgium, hot side hops from the Czech Republic, and cold side hops from Australia. The Postscript combines a description of this beer and the process involved, with a range of references to laws that have shaped aspects of the ingredients chosen for this beer.

What counts as scientific writing has undergone massive changes over the centuries. Medical writing is a good representative of the register of scientific English, as it combines both theoretical concerns and practical applications. Ideas of health and sickness have been communicated in English written texts for over a thousand years from the Middle Ages to the present, with different traditions and layers of writing reflecting literacy developments and changing thought-styles. This chapter approaches the topic from the perspective of registers and genres, considering how texts are shaped by their functions and communicative purposes and various audiences. Some genres run throughout the history of English: remedy books were already extant in the Old English period. Another core genre, the case study, mirrors wider scientific developments in response to changes in styles of thinking: medieval scholasticism is gradually replaced by a growing interest in increasingly systematic empirical observation. The establishment of learned societies from the seventeenth century onwards gives rise to new genres like the experimental report, and concomitant disciplinary advances and technological developments in the following centuries gradually pave the way for modern evidence-based medicine. Today medical advances are communicated in digital publications to a worldwide readership.

The chapter is focused on the Palmyrene Tariff (CIS II.3913), a lengthy bilingual text in Aramaic and Greek promulgated in the city in AD 137 to regularize local taxation, i.e. taxes on goods entering and leaving the city which originate within its immediate vicinity, and on trades being plied within the city, not taxes on long-distance trade. Attention is given to the book on the Tariff by Ilia Sholeimovich Shifman, published in Russian in 1980 and republished in English in 2014, and to the publications of Michał Gawlikowski (2012, 2014) on the original location of the Tariff stone opposite a shrine devoted to Rab-Asīrē and close to the Agora. The respective roles of Greek and Aramaic are explored, including the question of which had priority in the drawing up of the Tariff. The sources and composition of the text are analysed with reference to the role played by earlier Roman authorities. A final section considers the position of tax collectors in Palmyrene society and the light which the Tariff can throw on life in Roman Syria.

Radio and television were part of an ongoing narrative of technological innovation in the teaching of Shakespeare in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. This article examines the voices of NCTE’s English Journal teachers in those decades who strived to weave the new technologies into student-centred, project-based curricula.

With this contract, Nicholas Mathew opens the final chapter of his recent book The Haydn Economy, which is simply entitled: ‘Work’. ‘For most of his life’, Mathew writes, ‘Haydn was constantly busy’. In the chapter, Mathew deftly traces the common origins of the musical work concept and the economic concept of work. As Mathew builds his argument, he delves into Haydn’s varying forms of labour and work, and Haydn’s reflections on them. Mathew places special emphasis on Haydn’s career after the death of Prince Nikolaus in 1790: Haydn’s new-found ‘freedom’ brought yet more labour as he entered the London marketplace.

This article discusses the ways audio versions of The Tempest convey the play’s visual spectacles through language and sound effects; in addition, it examines the actors’ voices, particularly the use of different accents and verbal tics that help the auditor visualize the characters and the action.

This chapter explores the personal letter in the history of English through textual and material conventions of letter-writing, community aspects of letter-writing and language, and the role of editors and the reliability of edited epistolary sources. Community context is viewed as contemporary letter-writing practices, the involvement and influence of social networks and social relationships in letter-writing and language use, and the human factor and community aspects inherent in editing letters and compiling corpora.