The total 2pN net shifts per orbit and the orbital precessions are calculated as the sum of two contributions: the direct ones due to the 2pN acceleration and the mixed, or indirect, ones caused by the 1pN instantaneous shifts during the orbital revolution. A comparison with other approaches existing in the literature is made.

This chapter explores a core question in astrobiology: what is the future of life on Earth and beyond? The first part describes the cessation of habitable conditions in Earth’s distant future (about a billion years hereafter), and the myriad risks that apparently confront humanity on shorter timescales, ranging from wars and artificial intelligence to asteroid impacts and massive volcanoes. The second segment outlines the possibility of humans migrating to other worlds in the solar system, and the numerous technological and logistical challenges expected to arise during this endeavour. The even more daunting notion of interstellar travel is also touched upon, and the propulsion systems and spacecraft advanced in this regard are sketched. The textbook comes to a close by taking stock of the fates that might await humankind.

Mars has always been one of the most promising targets in the search for current or extinct extraterrestrial life. The chapter commences with a brief summary of Mars’ basic characteristics, before describing its potential for instantaneous habitability (e.g., energy sources, bioessential elements), with an emphasis on the availability of water. This is followed by an exposition of how several aspects of Martian habitability have diminished over time, ranging from extensive atmospheric loss to the shutdown of its dynamo, both of which might have contributed to the emergence of its cold and arid climate today. Nevertheless, some specialised abodes where life may have persisted are touched upon (e.g., deep subsurface). In the last part of the chapter, the contentious history of life detection on Mars – the Viking mission experiments in the 1970s and the meteorite ALH84001 – is reviewed, and forthcoming missions to Mars are surveyed.

The role of judges in implementing climate policies has become a crucial component of the existing governance framework regulating climate change action. Litigation focusing on more ambitious climate action is trending globally. Individuals, local authorities and NGOs are bringing lawsuits against national governments, holding them accountable to their legal obligations and engendering policy change. Due to the constitutional doctrine of the separation of powers, the justiciability of climate policy is questioned. Disagreements exist between advocates of an activist judicial role and those in favour of legislative and executive discretion. The main question is to what extent the judiciary can oblige other government branches to take urgent preventative action, particularly to implement or adjust climate policies. Their role in implementing climate policies is analysed from a comparative perspective, considering theoretical debates on the doctrine of the separation of powers in different legal systems and relevant case-law. The chapter connects international and domestic issues and highlights recommendations to foster effective implementation of more ambitious climate policies.

Icy worlds with subsurface oceans are potentially among the most common repositories of liquid water in the Universe. Moreover, the solar system is confirmed to host a number of such worlds, notably: Europa, Enceladus, and Titan. Motivated by these considerations, this chapter examines the habitability of icy worlds from a general standpoint. The oceanic properties of Europa, Enceladus, and Titan are reviewed, followed by a simple analysis of the physical conditions in which subsurface oceans may be supported. The pathways for the formation of the building blocks of life, their assembly into polymers, and subsequent delivery to the subsurface ocean are elucidated. The possible constraints on the availability of energy sources and bioessential elements are delineated, as well as the types of organisms and ecosystems that could exist. The chapter concludes by briefly speculating about the trajectories of biological evolution conceivable on icy worlds.

This chapter on continental strike-slip faults and shear zones explores some of the largest faults on Earth, and also faults that represent the greatest seismic hazards. The structural pattern associated with continental strike-slip faults is presented, including strike-slip duplexes, riedel-shears, transpressional and transtensional fold and fault structures, and the chapter discusses how some large faults of this kind appear to transect the entire lithosphere. Shear wave splitting data are briefly presented as a type of data that gives information of the deeper part of continental strike-slip faults, with the Great Glen fault as an example. The well-known San Andreas Fault in the western US, the Dead Sea Fault, The Alpine fault in New Zealand and the Turkish Anatolian Fault are presented as examples of large faults of this kind and how they represent plate boundaries in continental crust. Continental strike-slip structures that do not represent plate boundaries are also discussed, with the active strike-slip faults along the Tibetan plateau and much older and deeply eroded examples from Gondwana (Brazil-Africa) and Canada.