This chapter summarizes the complex nature of bilingual academic communication, highlighting the gradual and non-binary process of language acquisition. It emphasizes the importance of academic language, which is structured with regular patterns that facilitate learning in subjects like math, history, and science. It advocates for a deeper understanding of how academic language proficiency is developed through the systematic practice of lexis, syntax, and discourse.

In an era of globalization, multilingualism is vital for social mobility and equity. Educational institutions must adapt to the multilingual reality of today’s classrooms, where proficiency in a global language can open doors to social rights and international participation. The chapter stresses that multilingualism should be seen as an asset, not a transitional quirk, and highlights the benefits of bilingual education in fostering cognitive flexibility and critical thinking. Finally, it explores the need for proper resources, including qualified bilingual teachers, to make bilingual education effective and accessible to all students.

This chapter delves into the role of discourse in language development, extending beyond simple grammar to encompass social context and effective communication. It examines how cognitive structures, linguistic principles, and text genres – narrative, descriptive, expository, and argumentative – interact to shape discourse. Special focus is placed on cognitive discourse functions (CDFs), which guide thought and communication, alongside the importance of cohesion and coherence in constructing meaning.

While discourse is often overshadowed by syntax and lexis, research uncovers developmental patterns in both monolinguals and bilinguals. As learners advance, they refine cohesion strategies, transition from narrative to expository texts, and better integrate CDFs. Tools like Coh-Metrix and TAACO aid in discourse analysis, though much is still to be explored.

L1 and L2 discourse development follows similar paths, though L2 growth may lag due to syntactic proficiency thresholds. This chapter highlights the interplay of cognition, language exposure, and academic demands in shaping discourse mastery, reinforcing the need to support multilingual proficiency in education.

This chapter uncovers the power of academic language in bilingual education. Unlike casual speech, academic language is structured, dense, and cognitively demanding – challenging L2 learners. Success requires ‘L2 instructional competence’, blending language proficiency with advanced cognitive functions.

We explore key theories like the threshold hypothesis, which suggests a minimum language level for learning, and the interdependence hypothesis, which highlights skill transfer between languages. Classroom models categorize tasks by cognitive demand, illustrating structured speaking patterns and the need for rediscursification – language adjustments that enhance comprehension.

Academic language is crucial for professional and societal success, from writing essays to understanding abstract concepts. Biliteracy is a continuous process, supported by bilingual programmes such as CLIL and EMI. By linking cognitive insights with multilingual education, this chapter sets the foundation for quality bilingual instruction in a multilingual world.

History is not just a recounting of events; it is shaped by narrative style, cognitive frameworks, and the selection of time frames, all of which influence how events are understood. The chapter delves into the ‘linguistic turn’ in history, where language plays a crucial role in expressing and interpreting the past. Key elements of historical discourse, including narration, voice, time, and causation, are examined in depth.

The chapter also addresses the challenges of teaching history in a second language (L2), emphasizing the need for specialized instructional tools and rhetorical models. With references to a comprehensive chart of integrated descriptors for history across the curriculum and a genre map for bilingual history teaching, it underscores how controlling historical discourse through language can influence societies. Thus, this work also highlights the intersection of history, language, and ideology, especially in multilingual contexts.

This chapter explores the role of syntax in language development, showing how sentence structure evolves in bilinguals. Early L2 learners rely on L1 syntax or imitation, gradually forming independent L2 structures. Over time, L1 and L2 syntax merge, creating shared language nodes. Research confirms that both grammar systems remain active during language use.

Syntactic complexity is key to proficiency, measured through indices like clause structure and subordination. Advances in computational tools, such as Coh-Metrix and L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer, allow automated analysis of syntax. Studies show that bilinguals develop longer sentences, longer and more complex noun phrases, and more subordinate clauses over time.

Children worldwide follow a natural syntax progression – juxtaposition first, subordination later, and nominalization at higher levels. Bilinguals display unique patterns, with advanced L2 learners favouring longer sentences, relative clauses, and passive structures. This chapter highlights syntax’s role in bilingual growth and its impact on proficiency assessment.

This chapter explores language as a form of capital – both cultural and symbolic – and its role in social inequality. Drawing on Bourdieu’s theory (1986), it examines how language distribution reinforces power structures, with ruling classes controlling literacy in specialized fields. The ‘linguistic deficit’ theory links lower socioeconomic status (SES) with limited language resources, leading to educational and social deficits. It also introduces the Matthew effect, where students with more language capital accumulate even more, and the Great Gatsby Curve, suggesting that inequality in language resources perpetuates social stratification.

Through a series of case studies of bilingualism, the chapter illustrates how language shapes social power dynamics. It argues that, in a globalized world, bilingualism – often a privilege in elite education – should be made available to all to address broader social inequities. Only through multilingual education will language policies reduce inequality and enable true social mobility.

Biliteracy is a lifelong process shaped by social and educational factors. While some achieve full biliteracy, others struggle with semi-lingualism. This chapter explores key dimensions of biliteracy – contexts, media, content, and development – showing how language status and literacy traditions impact learning.

A case study follows a Spanish–English bilingual’s journey from being initiated in L1 writing to mastering L2 academic composition, illustrating multilingual education’s potential. However, many systems resist bilingual programmes due to cultural and political factors. This chapter examines biliteracy challenges in Ceuta, Melilla, and the United States, where policies shape outcomes.

Biliteracy is fluid – language dominance shifts over time, requiring educational support. Successful programmes recognize students’ linguistic repertoires, easing language transitions. Research confirms bilingual learners excel when home language literacy is included in instruction. This chapter will help to understand biliteracy’s evolving nature, which is key to building inclusive, effective education systems.