The development and appraisal of renewable energy schemes is described. The phases of project development are explained, as well as the importance of careful assessment of the renewable energy resource. The use of a special purpose vehicle (SPV) for the development of projects is discussed and the agreements and contracts that are required for a scheme are listed. Simple discounted cash flow calculations are used for the economic appraisal of a renewable energy scheme. The importance of the Environmental Impact Assessment and the production of an Environmental Statement are emphasized. The chapter is supported by 1 example, 7 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading is identified.

Radiation from the sun ultimately drives most of the forms of renewable energy discussed in this book, and this chapter describes the solar energy resource and how it is quantified. Direct and diffuse radiation are described with examples of irradiance and insolation (irradiation). The motion of the earth around the sun is described and the position of the sun as seen from the earth is illustrated. The geocentric or earth-centred representation of earth–sun geometry is used to explain the optimal orientation of a solar energy collector. Equations are provided to determine the location of the sun from a point on the earth. The solar spectrum is described and the air mass concept explained. This short chapter is supported by 4 examples, 10 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

The Euler–Lagrange (EL) approach is also often referred to as the point-particle approach, since the particles are taken to be point masses, as far as their interactions with the surrounding continuous phase are concerned. In the particle-resolved approach, the presence of the particles was fed back to the surrounding continuous phase through the no-slip, no-penetration, isothermal or adiabatic, and other boundary conditions. These boundary conditions, without additional closure assumptions, directly controlled the mass, momentum, and energy exchanges between the particles and the surrounding fluid. Furthermore, these exchanges, which are in the form of tractional force, heat, and mass transfer, are properly distributed around the surfaces of the particles, and they accurately account for the presence of boundary layers, wakes, and other microscale features around the particles.

Multiphase flow is a branch of fluid mechanics that has grown rapidly over the past few decades. The term phase in “multiphase” refers to the solid, liquid, or gaseous state of matter. Thus, a multiphase flow is one that involves more than one phase. Multiphase flow can be a gas–solid flow, as in the case of a sand storm or pneumatic transport of powder.

The second edition of this popular textbook has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date with new chapters addressing energy storage and off-grid systems. It provides a quantitative yet accessible overview of the renewable energy technologies that are essential for a net-zero carbon energy system. Covering wind, hydro, solar thermal, photovoltaic, ocean and bioenergy, the text is suitable for engineering undergraduates as well as graduate students from other numerate degrees. The technologies involved, background theory and how projects are developed, constructive and operated are described. Worked examples demonstrate the simple calculation techniques used and engage students by showing them how theory relates to real applications. Tutorial chapters provide background material supporting students from a range of disciplines, and there are over 150 end-of-chapter problems with answers. Online resources, restricted to instructors, provide additional material, including copies of the diagrams, full solutions to the problems and examples of extended exercises.