This chapter deals with the peaceful settlement of disputes. It considers first the diplomatic methods of dispute settlement, being negotiation between the parties, the use of good offices and mediation by a third party, inquiry by a third party and conciliation by a third party producing a non-binding report. Relevant international instruments and cases are noted. The role of regional organisations is then covered, examining the functions of the African Union, the Organization of American States, the Arab League, and the various European institutions. The position of the specialised agencies of the UN is noted. The chapter next turns to the settlement of international economic disputes from the World Trade Organization, regional institutions, the World Bank, to the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes and other mechanisms, including the use of bilateral investment treaties. Finally, the chapter considers arbitration as a binding method of third-party dispute settlement.

This chapter deals with the subjects of international law. The meaning of international legal personality is noted. The primary subject of the international system is the state and the conditions for the creation of statehood are examined (permanent population, defined territory, government and capacity to enter into relations with other states). Each of these conditions is examined. The role of self-determination in the context of the criteria of statehood is discussed, as is the function of recognition. The fundamental rights of states, such as independence and equality are noted. There then follow sections on particular kinds of states, such as protectorates and federal states, and then sui generis territorial entities, for example, mandated and trust territories in the past, territories under international administration, and entities of disputed status such as Taiwan, the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic, Kosovo and Palestine. Special cases such as the Sovereign Order of Malta, the Holy See and the Vatican City, and international corporations are covered before the right of peoples to self-determination is examined.

This chapter concerns the nature and role of the International Court of Justice. It begins by describing the organisation of the Court and the procedure for the appointment of the judges, then passes to the critical question of the jurisdiction of the Court. This is divided into interstate contentious jurisdiction and advisory jurisdiction. The former is based on consent, whether express or based upon a pre-existing obligation (whether a treaty or a declaration by the relevant states as deposited with the Court) as reflected in the Statute of the Court and its Rules. The sources of law, judicial propriety and legal interest are then considered, followed by an analysis of the question of evidence. The chapter turns to the indication of provisional measures, counterclaims and intervention by third parties. The question of remedies is then addressed, before the chapter turns to the advisory jurisdiction of the Court, where requested by the UN and its organs. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the role of the Court and the problem of the proliferation of courts and tribunals.

This chapter examines international humanitarian law or the laws of war or the laws of armed conflict. Its development is briefly traced and its substance based upon the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 examined. These cover the principles concerning the wounded and sick on land and on sea, the treatment of prisoners of war, and the protection of civilians in times of war. The scope and meaning of occupation is examined, ranging from the start of such occupation, the rights and duties of the occupying power and its cessation. In this context, the principles of self-determination and non-annexation of territory are noted. The relationship between international humanitarian law and international human rights law is then examined, followed by an analysis of the rules governing the conduct of hostilities. The status of non-international armed conflicts is considered, and then follows a survey of the pertinent principles governing cyber warfare. The chapter concludes with a look at the enforcement of international humanitarian law.

During Reconstruction, Bieral navigated shifting political landscapes, aligning with Republicans while maintaining ties to Democratic vice networks. His role in the Fisk–Stokes–Mansfield triangle and the Erie Railroad conflicts exemplifies the entanglement of personal vendettas, corporate power, and political violence. Bieral’s marriage to a Black woman suggests he embraced his ambiguous racial identity and repudiated his former support for white supremacy. The chapter explores the limits of reform and the endurance of patronage, highlighting Bieral’s ability to adapt and survive amid institutional change. His career reflects the uneasy coexistence of legality and lawlessness in Gilded Age America.

International commercial arbitration has failed to redeem its promise to be efficient. Approximately 27 percent of all international commercial arbitral proceedings are settled before issuance of a merits-based award. This book asserts that legacy international commercial arbitration is based on the economic efficiencies arising from a zero-sum-game approach to dispute resolution pursuant to which the most efficient result is one that yields a prevailing (winning) and non-prevailing (losing) party. This emphasis on process efficiency has caused international commercial arbitration to lose its standing as the premier dispute resolution methodology for cross-border commercial conflicts. Historically, settlement has not been perceived as an element of the culture of international commercial arbitration. Only recently has a consensus arisen acknowledging that arbitrators have an obligation to facilitate settlement. This book explains that, through timely risk assessment, voluntary settlement of arbitral proceedings will become the rule, not the exception, leading to optimal efficiency.

Bieral’s service in the Civil War, particularly at the Battle of Ball’s Bluff, transformed his public image from thug to hero. The chapter chronicles his bravery, injuries, and subsequent court martial, revealing tensions between his violent past and military discipline. Bieral’s postwar activities – supporting Reconstruction, working in customs, and engaging in political violence – illustrate the persistence of private coercion in public life. His association with figures such as Boss Tweed and involvement in the Erie Railroad wars underscore the continuity of corruption and brutality. The chapter situates Bieral within the contested terrain of postbellum governance and reform.

Ocean acidification (OA) science has rapidly developed since 2005; however, international action remains limited. This chapter explains the complex scientific background of OA to non-scientists. OA is measured on a logarithmic pH scale, with oceans becoming 40 per cent more acidic since pre-industrial times. Three groups of compounds contribute to acidification: CO2 (the primary driver), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulphur oxides (SOx). These substances enter the oceans through various means, such as anthropogenic emissions, geoengineering, coastal activities, and scrubber effluents from ships. Additional ocean stressors, such as climate change, pollution, and overfishing, compound the effects of OA, making adaptation more challenging. OA threatens calcifying organisms such as corals and oysters, disrupts food webs, and impacts human ecosystem services valued at potentially $1 trillion annually by 2100. Adaptation options include blue carbon ecosystems, marine protected areas, and fisheries management. The issue encompasses ocean, atmosphere, and land systems across multiple timescales and spatial levels, necessitating diverse governance approaches that address both global CO2 emissions and local stressors.