In Chapter 9, I return to the three narrative strands of Selling Healing through a synthesis of cross-cutting themes emerging from the case studies. I explore the possibilities of operationalising the Akan concept of Sankofa for indigenising health communication models. Sankofa means ‘to retrieve’. The concept is captured in the proverb: “Se wo were fi na wosan kofa a yenkyiri” / “It is not taboo to fetch what is at risk of being left behind” (Appiah et al., 2001). It is also represented visually, in gold weights, wood sculptures and textile designs, by a bird that moves forward while turning its head back. Sankofa has become an organising interdisciplinary principle for developing a decolonial and indigenising approach to identity, agency and social change for continental and diaspora African communities. I define Sankofa from a social psychological perspective, as a creative practice of the imagination and memory.

Ikigai is a Japanese word coined by the multilingual psychiatrist Dr. Kamiya, which roughly translates as “purpose in life.” Ikigai has attracted attention in health research and practice due to its association with positive health outcomes. Another Eastern-influenced construct that has gained increasing focus in health research and practice is self-compassion. Self-compassion involves being kind toward oneself during difficult times, mindfully balancing negative emotions, and recognizing that suffering is part of the shared human experience. Empirical studies report that self-compassion is strongly associated with mental well-being and purpose in life. This chapter examines ikigai and self-compassion and discusses key similarities and differences that exist between the two constructs. Similarities include their foundations in Eastern philosophy, their contribution to eudaimonia-type happiness, and their role in alleviating suffering. Differences between them highlight a lack of scientific evaluation of ikigai, including no standardized definition or measurement, and limited research on mental health outcomes. Self-compassion research can be advanced by identifying components of the standard self-compassion program.

The 37-item Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness, Version 2 (MAIA-2; Mehling et al., 2018) assesses body awareness; that is, the ability to notice sensory signals originating from inside the body that provide information about its physiological states, processes, and actions. The MAIA-2 can be administered online or in-person to adults, including to clinical populations such as people with chronic pain, eating disorders, and depression (the 32-item MAIA-Youth should be used for children and adolescents). The MAIA-2 is free to use, and no written permission is required to use it for scholarly and non-commercial purposes. This chapter first describes the development of the MAIA-2, and then provides evidence of its psychometric properties. More specifically, the MAIA-2 was initially purported to have an 8-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. However, fit indices for the 8-factor model have been less-than-ideal in numerous studies, and more recently authors have found acceptable model fits when examining bi-factor models and a higher-order models, suggesting that the MAIA-2 items and scales, respectively, also load onto a general factor, with the exception of the Not-Distracting and Not-Worrying items, which may correlate with this factor. MAIA-2 scores are scalar invariant across men and women, and composite reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity largely support the use of the MAIA-2. Next, this chapter provides directions to the MAIA-2 items and instructions for administration, and the item response scale and scoring procedure. An overview of available translations and abbreviations is provided. Finally, permissions, copyright, and contact information are provided for readers.

Religious beliefs are a profound source of motivation and purpose for many people. This is especially true of fundamentalists of different faiths, who strive to strictly adhere to what they believe to be scriptural guidance for how to live their lives. However, given the high rates of religious illiteracy across American citizens, belief in a religion does not necessarily indicate knowledge of the contents of one’s religious teachings. Perhaps as a consequence, people belonging to the same religion, and the clergy who guide them, have used different aspects of the scriptures to express divergent viewpoints (for and against slavery, homophobia, violence, etc.). The complexity of religious scriptures and interpretations across history has meant that members of religions who have sought to follow the righteous path have, at times, been taught that expressing bias against certain groups is the virtuous thing to do. As such, religion has been used to justify strategic beliefs (based on power and political motives) which then become fused with religious identity in private beliefs and public discourse. This chapter addresses how the noble purpose associated with being a virtuous person can be reclaimed from the forces that exploit the power of religion to create division and discord. We call on people to educate themselves about the content and context of various religious scriptures, to value diversity and avoid bias, and to cultivate spiritual and intellectual humility.

The 14-item Muscularity Bias Internalization Scale (MBIS; He et al., 2022) assesses muscularity bias internalization or internalized muscularity stigma, which refers to the extent to which an individual endorses muscularity-based stereotypes and makes negative self-evaluations due to muscularity. The MBIS can be administered online and in-person to adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the MBIS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, the MBIS has been found to have a three-factor structure in Chinese men but a two-factor structure in Chinese women. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the MBIS. Next, this chapter provides the MBIS items, instructions for administering the MBIS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 19-item Body Understanding Measure for Pregnancy scale (BUMPs; Kirk & Preston 2019) assesses body dissatisfaction during pregnancy. The BUMPs can be administered online and/or in-person to pregnant individuals and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BUMPs and then provides evidence of its psychometric validation. The BUMPs was developed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses which revealed a 3-factor structure with latent variables relating to (dis)satisfaction with appearing pregnant, concerns about weight gain, and physical burdens of pregnancy. The BUMPs is also found to be invariant across all three trimesters of pregnancy and therefore appropriate for use at all stages of pregnancy. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BUMPs. Next, this chapter provides the BUMPs items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BUMPs to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Information concerning a retrospective version of the BUMPs and current known translations is included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 14-item Intuitive Exercise Scale (IEXS; Reel et al., 2016) measures an individual’s adaptive relationship with exercise. Intuitive exercise is an exercise-specific parallel concept to intuitive eating; it entails listening to bodily cues for when to start or stop exercising, being mindful and having sensory awareness during exercise, and opting for diverse types of movement to maximize enjoyment. Intuitive exercise is distinguishable from other exercise constructs such as exercise abuse, excessive exercise, dysfunctional exercise, and exercise addiction. The IEXS can be administered online or in-person to adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the IEXS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the IEXS has a 4-factor structure via exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis among nonclinical samples (emotional exercise, body trust, exercise rigidity, and mindful exercise) and a 3-factor structure among women with eating disorders (emotional exercise, body intuition, and exercise variety). Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and incremental validity support the use of the IEXS. Next, this chapter provides the IEXS items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. A link to a Lithuanian translation is included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 6-item Viewing Body Positivity Online Content Scale (Kvardova et al., 2022) assesses the self-reported (perceived) frequency of viewing body positivity content online. The scale can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the scale and then provides evidence of its psychometric characteristics. More specifically, the scale has been found to have a one-factor structure within confirmatory factor analysis and scalar measurement invariance between adolescent girls and boys, allowing for latent mean comparison across these gender groups. The high internal consistency reliability and preliminary evidence of validity, demonstrated through associations with related constructs, suggest its potential for measuring adolescents’ self-reported frequency of viewing body positivity content online. Next, this chapter provides the scale items in their entirety, instructions for administration, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Permissions, copyright, and contact information are provided for readers.

Digital innovation has the potential to be transformative to both clinical practice and academic research related to mental health. Recent advances in research and consumer-grade technology, combined with society’s rapid and widespread adoption of digital technology, has created an emerging and dynamic field attracting the interest of clinicians, researchers, and service-users alike. In this chapter we summarise potential applications of digital technology to mental health research and clinical practice, including digital phenotyping, smartphone applications, virtual reality, and teletherapy. We summarise how digital technologies might be applied to enhance psychiatric assessment and treatment, as well as in research settings. In particular, we outline the potential benefits of digital technology as clinical and research tools. We also explore the challenges associated with digital innovation in mental health, including ethical concerns, methodological considerations when critiquing research in this field, and considerations from the service-user perspective.

Ghanaian artist and academic Bernard Akoi-Jackson developed and led a multi-year art therapy programme with patients at Pantang Psychiatric Hospital, one of Ghana’s three psychiatric hospitals. Chapter 6 focuses on an exhibition I co-curated with Akoi-Jackson on mental health promotion at the Nubuke Foundation, Accra, in 2009, inspired by this programme. Artwork produced by patients was exhibited alongside commissioned paintings on a pre-determined theme of ‘mental health’ from established Ghanaian contemporary artists and photographs from an anthropological study on mental healthcare in shrines and prayer camps. I detail the rationale and process of curating the exhibition and discuss visitors’ responses, which converged on two themes: the art exhibition as a viable approach for mental health promotion and arts therapies as methods of rehumanising the psychiatric space. I reflect on what the curating process revealed about the multilayered challenges faced by communities affected by severe chronic mental illness and where the arts can play a role in forging more robust collaborations between psychiatric and indigenous healing systems.

This chapter explores bias and fairness in Swedish employment testing from legal, historical, and practical perspectives. Swedish labor laws, influenced by trade unions and the welfare state, emphasize non-discrimination under the Discrimination Act. The law prohibits bias based on sex, gender identity, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and age, and requires preventive action. It is enforced by the Equality Ombudsman and Labour Court. Although validity evidence is not explicitly required, selection decisions should be based on a job analysis. No proof of intent is required in discrimination claims, and the burden of proof is shared. Quotas are banned, but positive action is allowed for gender balance when qualifications are equal. Psychological test certification is voluntary in Sweden; the Psychological Association offers guidelines on validity, reliability, and fairness. However, these are not mandatory, and many employers develop their own policies. International standards offer best-practice guidance for fair assessments, including for emerging artificial intelligence tools.

The 11-item Self-Oriented Comparison Scale-Appearance (SOCS-A; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2024) assesses self-oriented comparison, which occurs when a person compares their current body to their own body at previous points. The SOCS-A assesses both upward (comparing their current body to a previous more desirable version of their body) and downward (comparing their current body to a previous less desirable version of their body) self-oriented comparison. The SOCS-A can be administered to adults and adolescents, and there is no cost associated with using it. This chapter first discusses the development of the SOCS-A and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the SOCS-A has been found to have a 2-factor structure (Upward, Downward) within exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analyses as well as demonstrate gender invariance. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the SOCS-A, particularly the Upward subscale. Next, this chapter provides the SOCS-A items in their entirety, its item response scale, and instructions for administration and scoring. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

One consistent question from audiences at talks about purpose is simply, how do we develop purpose over time? Lamentably, while we know quite a bit about the value of purpose, the field has been lacking efforts to describe how it develops in the short and long term. The Chapter 1 will explore multiple frameworks for discussing purpose development, borrowing from personality and clinical science. Critically, we highlight the need to consider momentary bursts of purpose as catalysts for broader development, insofar that these moments provide individuals with affective and cognitive feedback regarding whether they are on the right path. Put simply, as people live through different experiences, they learn which activities, roles, and goals are of greatest personal importance.

The Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire (BDDQ; Phillips, 1996) is a brief self-report questionnaire that screens for the presence of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). The brief self-report Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire-Dermatology Version (BDDQ-Dermatology Version; Dufresne et al., 2001; Phillips et al., 2000) is similar to the BDDQ and was developed to screen for BDD in dermatology settings.

Chapter 6 uses this new understanding of chilling effects to elaborate the dangers of chilling effects both on an individual level and societal scale. The chapter elaborates the two dimensions of chilling effects – repressive and productive. The former speaks to how chilling effects today can repress speech and other rights on a mass scale; the latter speaks to how chilling effects are conforming effects, and thus produce conforming and compliant behavior on a societal scale, which has critical implications for individual identity, development, autonomy, and equality, but is also corrosive to democracy and democratic societies.

The 6-item Fear of Negative Appearance Evaluation Scale (FNAES; Lundgren et al., 2004) is a modification of Thomas et al.’s (1998) Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale and assesses respondents’ fear that their appearance will be negatively evaluated by others. The FNAES is distinct from other body image measures as it measures the fear associated with others’ potential negative judgements about one’s body, whereas body image and body dissatisfaction measures tend to measure one’s own judgements about one’s own body. The FNAES can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the FNAES and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the FNAES has a unidimensional factor structure within principal components and confirmatory factor analyses, and scores on the FNAES can be meaningfully compared across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the FNAES. Next, this chapter provides the FNAES items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. A link to a French translation is included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 6-item Centre for Appearance Research Valence Measure (CARVAL) and the 7-item Centre for Appearance Research Salience Measure (CARSAL; Moss & Rosser, 2012) assess different dimensions of body image. The CARVAL measures the valence of appearance-related thoughts and feelings, while the CARSAL assesses the salience or importance of appearance in an individual’s self-concept. These scales can be administered in-person to adolescents and adults and are free for use under a Creative Commons license. This chapter outlines the development of the CARVAL and CARSAL scales, including expert input and testing across diverse populations. Both scales have demonstrated strong psychometric properties, including high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: .88 to .93 for CARVAL, .86 to .91 for CARSAL) and reliability. Confirmatory factor analyses support the scales’ cognitive, affective, and relational dimensions. This chapter provides detailed instructions for administering the scales, the Likert-based response format, and scoring procedures. Known translations include Portuguese, and further translations may be developed. The chapter also provides information on copyright and permissions, ensuring that these tools are accessible for research and clinical purposes.

The 13-item Negative Body Talk Scale (NBT scale; Engeln-Maddox et al., 2012) assesses women’s tendency to engage in negative, appearance-focused conversations about their body. The NBT scale can be administered online or in-person with adolescent and adult women and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the NBT scale as well as the academic literature on the link between girls’ and women’s negative body talk and body satisfaction. Next, this chapter provides evidence of the psychometric properties of the NBT scale. Specifically, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses conducted with samples of young adult, undergraduate women suggest a correlated two-factor structure (body concerns and body comparisons) for scores on the scale. Analyses of NBT scores from a large sample of U.S. college women (ages 18-35) indicated scalar (i.e., strong) invariance across three ethnic groups (Asian, Latina, and White). Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the NBT scale. This chapter provides the NBT scale items, instructions for administering the measure to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and citation information, are also provided for readers.