Illusionist theories, such as the attention schema theory (AST) and the sensorimotor theory of phenomenal consciousness (SMT), are radically different from the above theories by proposing that consciousness is an illusion and, hence, the only thing to explain is why people believe that consciousness entails something inherently ineffable and mysterious. We discuss whether the challenges presented in previous chapters also apply to this category of theories.

In speech perception, timing and content are interdependent. For example, in distal rate effects, context speech rate determines the number of words, syllables, and phonemes heard in an unchanging target speech segment. Such results confront psycholinguistic theory with the chicken-and-egg problem of concurrently inferring speech timing and content, and the interrelated issues of narrowing the search space of speech interpretations without bias and optimizing the speed/accuracy tradeoff in online processing. We propose listeners address these issues by managing the timing of speech-related computations. Specifically, we claim: (1) Listeners model speech timing as part of a speaker model; (2) variable-length sequences of morphosyntactic units are the basic increments of speech inference; and (3) listeners adaptively schedule inferential updates and computationally intensive operations according to (4) fluctuations in uncertainty predicted by the speaker model. We illustrate these claims in a mechanistic model – vowel-onset-paced syllable inference – explaining multiple psycholinguistic results, including distal rate effects.

Children are active learners: They selectively attend to important information. Rhythmic neural tracking of speech is central to active language learning. This chapter evaluates recent research showing that neural oscillations in the infant brain synchronize with the rhythm of speech, tracking it at different frequencies. This process predicts word segmentation and later language abilities. We argue that rhythmic neural speech tracking reflects infants’ attention to specific parts of the speech signal (e.g., stressed syllables), and simultaneously acts as a core mechanism for maximizing temporal attention onto those parts. Rhythmic neural tracking of speech puts a constraint on neural processing, which maximizes the uptake of relevant information from the noisy multimodal environment. We hypothesize this to be influenced by neural maturation. We end by evaluating the implications of this proposal for language acquisition research, and discuss how differences in neural maturation relate to variance in language development in autism.

Learning to read any script requires paying close attention to the orientation of the character because it is a crucial part of what defines it. Learners of any script therefore get extensive practice of some of the skills that underlie mirror image discrimination. Proficient and automatic mirror discrimination abilities, however, only develop when the reader learns to read a script with mirror characters such as English. Thus, learning to read in general, and learning to read a script with mirror letters specifically, enhances visual discrimination skills.

Learning to read an alphabetic writing system enables individuals to segment spoken language into fine-grained speech sound units. This increased awareness of the phonological structure of spoken language enhances literate people’s ability to analyze and reflect on speech. Reading may also improve spoken word recognition; however, current research suggests that such benefits depend on the specific writing system and the degree of transparency with which language maps speech sounds onto graphemes.

Reading proficiency does not end once a reader can fluently decode a writing system. Literacy acquisition is a continuum that progresses from basic script decoding to efficient access and retrieval of information, to the ability to integrate and interpret embedded content within texts. At the highest levels, literacy involves critical reflection and the evaluation of complex texts, taking into account cultural, historical, societal, social, and power structures that may influence or obscure the validity of the information. Reaching these advanced levels of literacy requires regular engagement with sophisticated texts, along with the development of strong critical thinking and reasoning skills.

How likely it is that literacy, as we have known it, will be preserved in the years ahead? Or, perhaps the question has already shifted, from whether the written medium will fade to how soon that disappearance might occur. Generative artificial intelligence and related technology can support the transition toward new forms of literacy that evolve alongside emerging media. Large language models, in particular, may help preserve some of the cognitive and communicative advantages associated with “traditional” book-based language. In this way, technology could shape future media landscapes, keeping the perks of being a bookworm while softening some of the downsides of newer formats.

Reading and writing impose the logic of language more directly on thinking than speech does, as they foster deeper awareness of and sustained engagement with the rules and linear structure of language. Literacy enables readers to reason about topics that extend beyond personal experience, cultivating the ability to apply universal formal principles when evaluating events. This, in turn, enhances one’s understanding of the causal chains of reasoning required for deductive thinking.

Reading-induced abstraction processes take time but they are the foundation of what may be called abstract intelligence. Abstract intelligence is related to what often is called “out-of-the-box thinking”; seeing similarities and focusing on generalization enables thinking about something from a new perspective. Abstraction makes us more intelligent, which is one reason why reading makes us smart.

In this chapter, we discuss research from behavior, event-related brain potentials, and neural oscillations that suggests that cognitive and neural constraints affect the timing of speech processing and language comprehension. Some of these constraints may even manifest as rhythmic patterns in linguistic behavior. We discuss two types of constraints: First, we review how the unfolding acoustic and abstract context affects the timing of incremental processing on different linguistic levels (e.g., prosody, syntax). Second, we consider context-invariant constraints (e.g., working-memory trace decay, period of electrophysiological activity) and how these limit the duration of our processing time windows, thus restricting our segmentation and composition abilities.

Spoken and written language are likely to share many aspects of how they are represented in the human mind. For instance, it would be highly inefficient for the brain to store the meaning of words separately for its spoken and written forms. Instead, shared representations across modalities allow for interaction between them, meaning that the effects of written language can directly influence spoken language processing. As a result, predictive learning that occurs during reading naturally transfers to spoken language. Knowledge accumulated through reading, along with the predictive behavior it fosters, can thus directly support prediction in speech as well.

What is the relation between rhythm and stuttering in speech production/perception? Stuttering is a neurodevelopmental speech disorder that has an impact on the timing and rhythmic flow of production. It is marked by several repetitions, blocks, or lengthening of sounds and syllables that unsettle the rhythm of speech. There is a lot of behavioral and imaging research on speech disruptions; however, the mechanism behind stuttering is still unclear. Speech timing is rhythmically structured. Children who stutter do not easily generate an internal rhythm; they have a worse rhythm discrimination ability than typically developing children. In this chapter we investigate how adults who stutter pace their speech. We illustrate evidence of rhythm perception/production dysfunctions, assessing the hypothesis that neurodevelopmental stuttering is associated with a deficit in temporal processing and rhythmic patterning. Speech rhythm has been quantified using rhythmic measures (especially the pairwise variability index = PVI).