Modification of natural areas by human activities mostly has a negative impact on wildlife by increasing the geographical and ecological overlap between people and animals. This can result in escalating levels of competition and conflict between humans and wildlife, for example over crops. However, data on specific crops and crop parts that are unattractive to wildlife yet important for human livelihoods are surprisingly scarce, especially considering their potential application to reducing crop damage by wildlife. Here we examine the co-utilization of a nationally important and spatially abundant cash crop, cashew Anacardium occidentalis, by people and chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus inhabiting a forested–agricultural matrix in Cantanhez National Park in Guinea-Bissau. In this Park people predominantly harvest the marketable cashew nut and discard the unprofitable fruit whereas chimpanzees only consume the fruit. Local farmers generally perceive a benefit of raiding by chimpanzees as they reportedly pile the nuts, making harvesting easier. By ensuring that conflict levels over crops, especially those with high economic importance, remain low, the costs of living in proximity to wildlife can potentially be reduced. Despite high levels of deforestation associated with cashew farming, these findings point to the importance of cashew as a low-conflict crop in this area.

Terrestrial protected areas are often designated in inaccessible high elevation regions, and usually targeted towards conservation of charismatic large mammals and birds. It has been suggested that such protected areas, with partial coverage of riverine habitats, may not be adequate for conservation of freshwater taxa such as fishes. Also, protected areas are often designated in upstream catchments of dam reservoirs, and conservation of freshwater biodiversity is usually not a priority. We investigated the importance of existing protected areas for conservation of stream fishes within and across three dammed and two undammed rivers in the southern Western Ghats, India (a global biodiversity hotspot). Comparisons of stream sites in protected and unprotected areas were restricted to mid elevations because of confounding factors of dams, elevation and stream order. For dammed rivers, endemic and total species richness was significantly higher inside protected areas than unprotected areas. Total fish species richness increased with decreasing elevation and endemic species richness peaked at mid elevations. Species found in comparable stream orders across dammed and undammed midland river reaches were similar. Intensity of threats such as sand mining, dynamite fishing, pollution and introduced invasive fishes was higher in unprotected than in protected areas. Lack of awareness among managers has also led to the occurrence of some threats within protected areas. However, existing protected areas are vital for conservation of endemic fishes. Our results support the need for extending the scope of terrestrial protected areas towards better representation of freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity.

Only two members of the genus Ribes L. (Grossulariaceae) occur in Sardinia, both endemic: R. sardoum and R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum. R. sardoum is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum is a rare species previously known from only a few localities. Both species grow only in mountainous areas. In 2006–2010 we carried out a field survey to verify the conservation status of R. sardoum and to estimate the number of individual plants, identify threats and assess the conservation status of R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum. R. sardoum is threatened by grazing, its small population, low seed viability and the activities of tourists, confirming its Critically Endangered status. We found R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum in 13 localities, three of which are new records, with the plants in scattered groups or singly, in three populations. The threats to R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum are overgrazing, the small populations, habitat fragmentation and the activities of tourists. We propose that R. multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum be categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Research activities and conservation measures for this genus on Sardinia have been proposed and some conservation actions have already commenced.

We report a range-wide status assessment of a key Neotropical ecosystem architect, the white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari, categorized as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, using published information and unpublished data from 41 scientists in 15 range countries. We estimate that the white-lipped peccary has been extirpated in 21% of its historical range over the last 100 years, with reduced abundance and a low to medium probability of long-term survival in another 48% of its current range. We found major range declines in Argentina, Paraguay, southern Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, north-east Brazil, Mexico and Costa Rica. This species is particularly at risk in more xeric ecosystems, especially the caatinga, cerrado and pampas. Hunting and habitat destruction are the most severe threats, although there are also unexplained sudden die-offs suggestive of disease. We evaluate our results in light of this species’ important interspecific interactions and its role as an ecosystem architect. One of our recommendations is that conservation efforts should focus on landscape conservation of large, continuous and ecologically intact areas containing a mosaic of different habitat types.

The guanaco Lama guanicoe was the only large native herbivore widely distributed across Patagonia until the introduction of domestic sheep Ovis aries. Guanacos have declined because of competition with sheep for forage, high hunting pressure and habitat degradation. Península Valdés is a protected area where sheep ranching is the predominant activity. A ranch formerly dedicated to sheep production was converted into a private wildlife reserve, from which all the sheep were removed in 2005. We studied changes in guanaco abundance inside and outside the reserve after sheep removal, and also plant cover of various vegetation types. We found that guanaco abundance was higher inside than outside the reserve, and increased by three-fold within 3 years. Total plant cover and grass cover were higher inside than outside the reserve. Our results showed that guanacos reacted rapidly to changes in management, and suggest that even at a high density guanacos would not be as damaging to the vegetation as sheep. Although management changes resulted in significant changes in guanaco abundance locally, the size of a protected area influences the persistence of wild populations. A large herbivore such as the guanaco needs to be managed across large areas. We believe it is necessary to implement a management plan for Península Valdés that allows for the coexistence of sustainable livestock production and healthy wildlife populations.

Wildlife tourism is a growing phenomenon, particularly in emerging economies such as India. Purported benefits of this growth in tourism include greater tourist interest in, and support for, conservation. We examined the interest, awareness and potential for this support in three prominent Indian national parks, Nagarahole, Kanha and Ranthambore. Park records indicate that most tourists (71%) are Indian nationals. Our surveys of 436 Indian tourists indicate that many were on their first visit to the park (71%) and are well educated (82% with bachelor and master degrees). Most tourists (88%) visited for <1 week and spent <USD 600 on their visit. The main reasons for visiting parks were opportunities to see nature, tigers Panthera tigris and scenic beauty. Seventy-one percent of tourists indicated they are likely or somewhat likely to return to the parks but only 34% would be willing to visit the parks if tigers are absent. Forty-two percent indicated willingness to pay higher gate fees. Surprisingly, those spending less on their trip were more willing to pay higher fees than those spending more. Sixty-five percent believed that local people benefit from the park, whereas in reality local benefits are few. Our results indicate the potential for the growth of domestic wildlife tourism and support for conservation among tourists but highlight the need for increasing education and awareness on the difficult realities of conservation in India.

Recovery plans for the Endangered loggerhead marine turtle Caretta caretta cite mammalian predation as a major threat, and recommend nest protection efforts, already present at many rookery beaches, to protect eggs and hatchlings. Nest protection techniques vary but wire box cages and plastic mesh screens are two common tools used to deter predation by a host of beach-foraging, opportunistic mammalian predators. We empirically tested the efficacy of wire cages and plastic mesh screens in preventing red fox Vulpes vulpes predation on artificial nests. Both techniques averted fox predation (0%), whereas unprotected control nests suffered 33% predation under conditions of normal predator motivation, or a level of motivation stimulated by loggerhead turtle egg scent. However, in side-by-side comparisons under conditions of presumed high predator motivation, 25% of mesh screens were breached whereas no cage-protected nests were successfully predated. In addition to effectiveness at preventing predation, factors such as cost, ease of use, deployment time, and magnetic disturbance were evaluated. Our study suggests that the efficacy of plastic screens and the potential disadvantages associated with galvanized wire should influence selection of mechanical barriers on beaches where fox predation threatens loggerhead nests.

There were 2,541 nature reserves accounting for c. 15% of China's land territory by 2009. As nature reserves hold the majority of the country's wildlife they play a fundamental role in protecting the country's biodiversity. National policies relevant to nature reserves have had a positive effect on biodiversity although these policies are now facing increasing challenges. We reviewed the development of relevant policy and legislation and identify and assess challenges, using a questionnaire survey and personal interviews. The main challenges identified and assessed included lack of harmonization between government departments, between nature reserves and other protected area designations, and between nature reserves and local communities. In addition, recent transfers of responsibilities between government entities, potential impacts of forest tenure reforms, and issues surrounding natural resource use and ecotourism were identified. These obstacles could undermine the achievements of biodiversity conservation in China if they are not addressed soon. Given these findings, we make recommendations to guide future policy formulation in relation to nature reserve management and development.

Tigridiopalma magnifica, a perennial herb and the only species in the genus Tigridiopalma (Family Melastomataceae) is rare and endemic to China where it is categorized as Critically Endangered on the national Red List. Twelve locations with populations of T. magnifica have been identified (1 extinct, 11 extant). T. magnifica only grows in the surface soil on stone walls or rocks under the canopy of secondary forests and plantations and has no specific associated plant species. Canopy closure, soil water content and the distance to the closest stream are the main factors influencing the distribution of T. magnifica. We reintroduced T. magnifica plantlets produced by tissue culture into three locations: one within the species' original range, and 11.5 and 400 km from the species' original range. After 11 months survival rate was 40–58% but survival was higher and plantlet crowns were larger at the location within the species' original range than at the other two sites. The combination of advanced propagation techniques and ecological restoration could facilitate reintroduction and conservation of T. magnifica and other rare and threatened plants. This example of the successful reintroduction of a rare, threatened herb has implications for human-assisted migration and colonization of rare plant species under future climate change scenarios.

We examined impacts from effective predator management on nesting success of marine turtles in an exceptional nesting year at Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA, a beach with a high density of nesting marine turtles that has a history of severe nest predation. Historically up to 95% of nests were predated, primarily by raccoons Procyon lotor and, more recently, armadillos Dasypus novemcinctus. Predator control was identified as the most important conservation tool for marine turtle reproduction. Predator management by refuge staff as ancillary duties typically only held predation levels to c. 50%. However, when experts in predator control were employed predation was substantially reduced. An extraordinary opportunity to evaluate the biological and economic benefits of this management approach occurred in 2008, a year with exceptionally heavy nesting. Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta nesting resurged, green Chelonia mydas and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea turtles nested in record numbers, producing twice or more than their median number of nests, and the first Kemp’s ridley Lepidochelys kempii nest was observed. Overall predation was 14.7%, resulting in an estimated > 128,000 additional hatchlings emerging compared to estimates had no predator management been in place and historical predation rates occurred, and > 56,000 hatchlings more than expected had predator management been conducted as ancillary duties rather than by experts. The USD 12,000 investment for expert predator management equated to only USD 0.09 spent for each additional hatchling produced compared to the scenario of no predator control and only USD 0.21 compared to the scenario of predator control as ancillary duties.

The banteng Bos javanicus is a globally threatened species of wild cattle restricted to South-East Asia. We report the first robust estimate of banteng density and population size from anywhere in the species' global range, using distance-based line transect sampling within two protected areas, Mondulkiri Protected Forest and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, which form part of the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia. We surveyed 110 line transects multiple times during the dry seasons of 2009–2010 and 2010–2011. In a total survey effort of 1,310 km there were 63 encounters with banteng. The mean estimate of the population across the 3,406 km2 study area is 3,200 (95% confidence interval 1,980–5,170). This suggests that the protected area complex of the Eastern Plains Landscape supports the majority of the global population of banteng. Stronger protection, both in the form of increased anti-hunting and poaching patrols and integrated land-use planning to prevent habitat loss within protected areas, is essential for securing wild cattle populations in the Eastern Plains Landscape.

There is evidence for the ecological extinction of the native prey of the puma Puma concolor in north-western Argentine Patagonia. In this study we examine whether this is also the case in southern Patagonia. From 2004 to 2007 we examined the puma’s diet in three protected areas and two sheep ranches in Santa Cruz province. A total of 282 puma scats were analysed. In two of the protected areas and in the ranches 60–74% of the puma’s diet was native prey. Prey species were primarily guanaco Lama guanicoe, followed by Patagonian mara Dolichotis patagonum, lesser rhea Pterocnemia pennata pennata, Patagonian pichi Zaedyus pichiy and Magellanic penguin Spheniscus magellanicus. In the third protected area the main prey was the European hare Lepus europaeus. Our results show a clear difference in the diet of the puma in southern compared to north-western Patagonia. Large native herbivores (i.e. guanaco and lesser rhea) maintain their role as the main prey species for the puma in southern Patagonia. We suggest, therefore, that native prey could be restored to those areas of Argentine Patagonia, such as the north-west, where they are currently ecologically extinct. Facilitating native species recovery and/or restoration and applying more rigorous controls to prevent the introduction of potential alien prey species of the puma both, within and outside protected areas, needs to be evaluated as a regional strategy.

The population size of the Critically Endangered white-shouldered ibis Pseudibis davisoni has always been poorly known. The first-ever census across Cambodia in 2009–2010 using simultaneous counts at multiple roost sites found substantially more birds than previously estimated, with a minimum of 523 individuals. The census allowed us to make a revised global population estimate of 731–856 individuals, increasing hope for the species' long-term survival. However, the largest subpopulations are imminently threatened by development and c. 75% of the birds counted in Cambodia were outside protected areas.

Scrophularia takesimensis Nakai is a Critically Endangered plant species endemic to Ulleung Island, Republic of Korea. We provide updated information on the distribution and conservation status of this species. We located 39 subpopulations and counted a total of 443 individuals, including some reintroduced. Observations of dried and broken branches, with fruits, of S. takesimensis along the coast may indicate dispersal by sea. The construction of coastal roads is the main threat to the species. To conserve this species more effectively we recommend that: (1) the two habitats identified as a priority for conservation should be afforded special protection, (2) habitats to the seaward side of coastal roads are more suitable than habitat on the landward side for in situ conservation, and (3) the presently known subpopulations require continuous protection and monitoring.

The potential conservation value of fragmented or countryside landscapes in the tropics is being increasingly recognized. However, the degree to which fragmented landscapes can support species and the key patch and landscape features that promote population persistence remain poorly understood for elusive species such as ground-dwelling birds. We examined the presence/absence of seven species of galliforms and tinamous in 50 forest patches of 2.9–445 ha in northern Guatemala using camera traps and audiovisual surveying. After accounting for differences in detectability among species we found great variation in patterns of vulnerability of these species to habitat loss and fragmentation, with the three largest species being the most vulnerable. Distribution patterns of species among patches was influenced more strongly by measures of landscape context, such as the amount and configuration of habitat in the surrounding landscape, than within-patch variation in vegetation structure or disturbance. Our results indicate that large-bodied game birds may be particularly sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation and emphasize that management efforts for these species need to go beyond consideration of local, within-patch factors to consider the impact of processes in the surrounding landscape. Our findings also demonstrate the utility of camera traps as a methodology for surveying large terrestrial bird species in fragmented landscapes.

The great bustard Otis tarda became extinct in the UK during the 19th century due to a combination of factors, including hunting, egg collection and changes in agriculture. In 2003 a 10-year licence was granted to begin a trial to reintroduce the species back to the UK. Here we report on the first 5 years of the trial and assess the progress made towards establishing a founder population. From April 2004 to September 2009 a total of 102 great bustard chicks were imported from Russia and 86 released on Salisbury Plain. Monitoring showed that post-release survival was 18% in the first year following release, and that mortality of released bustards was mainly attributable to predation and collisions. Estimated adult survival was 74%, although the sample size was small. All known surviving great bustards are faithful to the surroundings of the release site, returning throughout the year. A lek has been established where males have been observed displaying to females. The first nesting attempt was in 2007, and in 2009 two females aged 3 and 4 years successfully nested, fledging one chick each. Models incorporating the new demographic estimates suggest that at the end of the 10-year trial period the project can expect to have 8–26 adults as a founder population.

The West African giraffe is a genetically unique population represented only by the subspecies Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. These giraffes live outside protected areas, without natural predators and share their habitat with local people and their livestock. This study provides demographic data on this poorly studied megaherbivore and documents its recovery. We analysed the results of photo-identification censuses from 1996 to 1999 (count data) and from 2005 to 2008 (count and demographic data). From 1996 to 1999 the annual growth rate was c. 19% because of an unbalanced population structure after a period of severe poaching. From 2005 to 2008 an annual growth rate of c. 12–13% was estimated from both count data and demographic parameters. This value fits with the maximum growth rate calculated for a browser species based on the allometric relationship linking growth rate and body mass. During the period 2005–2008 adult and subadult females had a constant survival rate of 0.94 and a constant recapture rate of 0.97. Annual calf survival rate was 1. Observed sex ratio at birth was 0.57 and mean reproductive success was 0.257. Generation time was estimated to be 9.66 years. This spectacular population growth was mostly attributed to the absence of predators and the ongoing monitoring to limit illegal hunting.

In recent decades there has been a marked decline in most ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana populations in temperate Europe, with many regional populations now extinct or on the brink of extinction. In contrast, Mediterranean and, as far as we know, eastern European popula-tions seem to have remained relatively stable. The causes of decline remain unclear but include: habitat loss and degradation, and related reduction in prey availability; climate change on the breeding grounds; altered population dynamics; illegal captures during migration; and environmental change in wintering areas. We review the current knowledge of the biology of the ortolan bunting and discuss the proposed causes of decline in relation to the different population trends in temperate and Mediterranean Europe. We suggest new avenues of research to identify the factors limiting ortolan bunting populations. The main evidence-based conservation measure that is likely to enhance habitat quality is the creation of patches of bare ground to produce sparsely vegetated foraging grounds in invertebrate-rich grassy habitats close to breeding areas.

Over the last 20 years surveys of the population of the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus in Doñana National Park and its surroundings in Spain have produced estimates of a total population of 50–60 in fragmented patches. The population was estimated to be 26 adults in 2002–2003. Use of camera trapping and other field methods during 2004–2008 allowed us to determine the abundance of the lynx and to estimate demographic statistics. Estimated annual abundance of adult and subadult lynxes averaged 38 individuals (range 35–43). Although the population exhibited a continuous distribution it was concentrated in three major areas, including Doñana National Park, with an average area occupied of 620 km2. Our results suggest that the Doñana Iberian lynx population now has a different structure from that in the 1990s and in particular a more continuous spatial distribution. These results indicate an improved, but not secure, scenario for the population. The continuous geographical distribution suggests the population is currently less vulnerable to extinction than 10 years ago. Conservation actions now need to focus outside Doñana National Park on the reconversion of pine plantations into original Mediterranean scrubland habitat, and the continuity and intensification of ongoing restocking with rabbits in fenced areas.

Translocation and reintroduction are used to reduce extinction risk associated with a small population and range size in threatened mammal species. We evaluated the outcome of a reintroduction of the bridled nailtail wallaby Onychogalea fraenata to Avocet Nature Refuge, a private refuge in central Queensland, Australia. This macropod was also reintroduced to Idalia National Park in western Queensland in 1996 and occurs in one natural population in central Queensland. We estimated population growth, adult and juvenile survival, and distribution changes since the last release of O. fraenata to Avocet in 2005, and evaluated female reproductive success and health. Although animals were in good condition, population size was a tenth of that of the 1996 Idalia reintroduction reported after 3 years and, unlike at Idalia, juvenile survival at Avocet was low. The likely causes are consistent with predictors of translocation and reintroduction failures in mammals. These are predation, the small number of individuals in each release, the likely suboptimal health status of reintroduced individuals, drought, and possibly lack of dispersal from the small area of preferred habitat. The lessons of this reintroduction are that future attempts are likely to have the best chance of success if they occur in non-drought years, at sites with large, non-fragmented areas of brigalow forest, involve the release of large groups of animals together, and are accompanied by intensive, long-term baiting to control introduced predators.