The blue gum chalcid (Leptocybe invasa) is a serious invasive, galling insect pest of eucalypts grown outside Australia. Variability in resistance of species and genotypes of Eucalyptus to the pest is widely reported but without consideration of the influence of silviculture on the severity of galling. We assessed the variability of gall expression by 29 genotypes of E. camaldulensis by L. invasa in common nursery experiments and in 5 common garden arboreta planted in diverse climatic zones and soil types around Kenya. We quantified variation in growth and the concentrations of defensive chemical compounds (namely polyphenolic compounds) to assess possible genotype × environment interactions which we also relate to the climate of the parent seed trees in Australia. Generally, genotypes endemic to low latitude regions of Australia were more resistant to the pest while the concentration of quinic acid derivatives (QUIN) exhibited an interaction with arboretum location in Kenya. The concentration of QUIN in potted plants did not vary significantly with nitrogen supplementation. However, growth rates and total polyphenolic concentrations varied with arboretum location. Since QUIN, which have been previously shown to confer resistance against L. invasa, did not vary in different arboreta, resistant subspecies and genotypes of E. camaldulensis can be deployed in novel habitats and will not be galled. Our findings support the critical need to plant stock of known genotype(s) rather than planting stock grown from locally collected seed. This will require the establishment of eucalypt seed orchards if clonal production of planting stock is not possible.

The black soldier fly (BSF) (Hermetia illucens) has gained global economic relevance as a sustainable resource for animal feed, organic waste bioconversion, and the production of nutrient-rich frass for agricultural use. Its ability to convert low-value waste streams into high-value proteins, lipids, and fertilisers makes BSF a key component of emerging circular-economy models. However, the influence of vegetable and fruit waste (VFW) substrates on insect performance, nutrient composition, frass quality, and economic efficiency remains poorly defined. This study evaluated five substrate levels obtained by mixing laying hen feed with VFW at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, assessing their effects on the growth performance, body measurements, chemical composition, frass characteristics, and economic traits of BSF larvae and prepupae. The results showed that up to 75% VFW can be used to rear BSF up to 23 days of age without compromising growth traits. Substrate reduction ranged from 67.2% to 89.4%, and larval-to-prepupal conversion increased with feed intake. VFW level significantly affected larval and prepupal nutrient profiles, including dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, nitrogen-free extract, and chitin. Frass from the 100% VFW substrate exhibited the highest nutrient concentration, although this inclusion level impaired feed conversion due to elevated fibre content. Economic analysis indicated that using VFW can reduce substrate costs without negatively affecting revenue. Overall, a VFW inclusion level of up to 75% is recommended as the optimal balance between insect growth efficiency, nutrient recycling, and frass fertilising potential.

Citrus leprosis is a non-systemic disease caused by citrus leprosis virus (CiLV), which is classified as cytoplasmic (CiLV-C) or nuclear (CiLV-N) based on its replication site within host cells. Mite species in the genus Brevipalpus vector this virus. In Mexico, B. californicus and B. yothersi have been recorded in citrus orchards, with the latter species being most abundant and widely distributed. Despite extensive research, knowledge gaps remain regarding interactions between Brevipalpus and CiLV-C, the predominant virus type. We investigated the vector competence of both species, with a detailed analysis of density-dependent acquisition and transmission for B. yothersi. Virus acquisition was assessed using three densities (5, 10, or 15 adult females) for B. yothersi and a single desity (15 mites) for B. californicus. Virus detection and quantification were performed using a TaqMan probes targeting the viral movement protein gene. Transmission assays were conducted on Phaseolus vulgaris plants using viruliferous B. yothersi at all densities. B. californicus did not acquire the virus and was therefore excluded from transmission experiments. In contrast, B. yothersi successfully acquired the virus at all densities. While the proportion of viruliferous mites did not differ significantly among density treatments, viral load per mite was significantly higher at the lowest density. Virus transmission ocurred at all densities, with no significant differences in viral titres in inoculated plants. There results provide insights into density-related mite-virus interactions affecting CiLV-C transmission.

The quarantine pest, Opisina arenosella Walker, poses a significant threat to 34 palm plant species, including economically vital coconut trees. Its adaptability and rapid spread raise concerns about global tree invasion and potential economic and environmental impacts. Utilising advanced sequencing technology, this study aims to analyse O. arenosella mitochondrial genome, comparing it with three Lepidoptera families to explore its phylogenetic status. The complete mitochondrial genome (15,389 bp) was sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq platform, with tRNA genes validated using tRNAScan-SE and MITOS WebServer. Comparative analysis involved 13 protein-coding genes and 2 ribosomal RNA genes, comparing them with outgroup species like Agapanthia amurensis. The results revealed that O. arenosella genome’s nucleotide composition is 39.24% A, 41.33% T, 12.02% C, and 7.41% G. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods. Interestingly, in the BI analysis, (O. arenosella + Ripeacma umbellate) clustered together with ((Promalactis suzukiella + Promalactis odaiensis) + (Stathmopoda auriferella + Casmara patrona)), forming a clade with high node support, while ML lacked high node support. Additionally, both methods indicated a monophyletic clade with high node support for Comparmustilia, Oberthueria, Pseudandraca, and Andraca. This research provides valuable mitochondrial genome data, contributing to phylogenetics and taxonomy studies, establishing a foundation for future research in this field.

Fruit flies are the most serious problem in fruit production worldwide, causing severe losses in production and fruit quality. The use of parasitoids, especially Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), is an important tool for suppressing the fruit fly population. The objectives of this study were to determine the exposure time, density, and ideal larval instar of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) and to verify whether the parasitoid’s previous experience affects its interaction with the host insect and the influence of these factors on the parasitism rate. In three bioassays, fly larvae were placed in ‘parasitism units’ to test different methods of exposure to female parasitoids. The variables included the previous experience of the female parasitoid with oviposition, the exposure time (30, 60, 120, 240, and 480 min) of the larvae to the parasitoid and the number (5, 10, 15, and 20) and instar (second and third) of the fly larvae. The flies and parasitoids that emerged were quantified, and the parasitism rate and sex ratio of the parasitoids were calculated. The results of the present study indicate that to increase the parasitism rate of D. longicaudata, third-instar larvae of C. capitata must be grouped into parasitism units of 20 larvae and exposed to a single female of the parasitoid for 8 h.

The legume pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), is one of the pervasive and destructive pests of legume crops, causing significant yield losses. In this study, we evaluated the nutritional performance and digestive enzyme activities of H. armigera when fed on ten mung bean varieties, including Baghmalek, India, Veys, Omrani, Parto, Simite1, Simite2, VC6371, VC3960, and VC6368. Additionally, biochemical profiling of these mung bean varieties, assessing starch, protein, anthocyanin, total phenolic and flavonoid content, was conducted to explore potential correlations with the nutritional physiology of H. armigera. The findings indicated that the larvae fed on Parto had lowest approximate digestibility, efficiency of conversion of ingested food, and relative growth rate, while those fed on VC6371 had the highest values. The values of efficiency of conversion of digested food were lower on Baghmalek and Parto and higher on VC6368 and VC6371. The lowest value of larval gain weight was on Parto. The highest proteolytic and amylolytic activities of larvae were observed on Veys and India, respectively; while the lowest enzyme activities were recorded on Parto. Our findings indicate that the low protein content combined with high levels of anthocyanin, total phenolics, and flavonoids may contribute to the potential tolerance of mung bean varieties against H. armigera. Cluster analysis revealed that VC6368 and VC6371 were the most suitable varieties for H. armigera development, whereas Baghmalek and Parto were nutritionally less suitable and may severe as promising candidates for breeding or cultivation to minimise damage caused by this pest.

The immunomodulatory effects of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. fruit extracts were investigated using Galleria mellonella as an insect immune model. The expression of antimicrobial peptides, hemolin, phenoloxidase genes (PO-I and PO-II), and enzyme activity was measured in response to Candida albicans, silica beads, and Z. jujuba fruit extract. Responses were found to be stimulus- and time-dependent. Gallerimycin and galiomycin, key antimicrobial peptides, exhibited distinct expression patterns, with gallerimycin showing a more pronounced response to pathogens and beads. The Z. jujuba extract stimulated an early but balanced immune activation, likely due to its bioactive compounds. Hemolin expression varied between larvae and haemocytes depending on the type and duration of the challenge, supporting its role in immune recognition and opsonisation. Phenoloxidase activity and gene expression were also enhanced, supporting their role in promoting melanisation processes. Docking analyses suggested that hemolin contributes to phenoloxidase activation by stabilising PO-I and interacting with the phenoloxidase-activating factor-1-like protein (PAP1). The findings suggest that Z. jujuba extract effectively modulates immune responses, promoting enhanced protection while maintaining immune balance. GC-MS analysis revealed multiple bioactive compounds potentially contributing to immune modulation. This study highlights the significant immunomodulatory effects of Z. jujuba fruit extract on the immune system of G. mellonella. The findings suggest its potential as a natural immunostimulant and warrant further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms and bioactive components.

This study tested the effects of soil amendment with orange peel powder (Citrus sinensis L.) on Brassica rapa growth, the performance of the aphid Myzus persicae Sulzer, and the foraging behaviour of its parasitoid Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead. Three peel: soil ratios (1:10, 1:15, 1:20 w/w) were compared with an unamended control. The 1:10 amendment significantly reduced seed germination, plant height, leaf size, and fresh weight, while the 1:20 amendment also decreased fresh weight. Aphid nymphal development was significantly delayed in the 1:10 and 1:15 treatments, and adult weight gain was reduced in the 1:15 treatment. Aphid population growth and parasitoid foraging time were unaffected across treatments. The results indicate that orange peel amendments can delay aphid development but also suppress plant growth at higher concentrations, highlighting the need for optimized application rates. This study supports further exploration of orange peel as a sustainable soil amendment in integrated pest management.

Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), commonly known as potato aphid, is an economically damaging pest in tomato agroecosystem. Farmers often resort to chemical insecticides for its control, but this approach poses long-term ecological challenges. Biological control, which involves the strategic use of natural enemies, offers a more sustainable and effective alternative for managing insects. The syrphid, Episyrphus viridaureus (Weidemann) (Diptera: Syrphidae) is a natural predator of potato aphid within tomato fields. However, comprehensive information on its developmental biology, population growth parameters, predatory potential and functional response remain limited, prompting this study. In the present study, E. viridaureus was able to complete its lifecycle successfully while feeding on M. euphorbiae with an intrinsic rate of increase (r) (offspring/individual/day) of 0.103 and finite rate of increase (λ) (offspring/day) of 1.108. The larvae of E. viridaureus consumed 332.35 aphids out of which third instar larvae made the maximum contribution by consuming 232.69 aphids. All the three larval instars exhibited a type-II functional response against different densities of M. euphorbiae. Functional response parameters like attack rate (a) increased and handling time (Th) decreased as the larval stages advanced. This research highlights the potential of E. viridaureus as an effective biocontrol agent against M. euphorbiae, contributing to sustainable pest management.

Saissetia oleae (Oliver) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) is a major pest of olive trees that requires effective biological control methods. This study evaluated the predatory mite Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae) for its predation efficiency against S. oleae eggs and nymphs under laboratory (25 ± 1 °C, 60 ± 10% RH) and screenhouse (25 ± 4 °C) conditions. Two laboratory trials were conducted over 6 days: Trial 1 assessed predation on S. oleae eggs, and Trial 2 on nymphs. Additionally, screenhouse trials tested four predator–prey ratios (T1: 1:2, T2: 1:4, T3: 1:8, T4: 1:10, adult A. swirskii to S. oleae eggs), with weekly observations over 10 weeks. Under laboratory conditions, A. swirskii caused significantly higher mortality in eggs (17.9 eggs consumed) than in nymphs (10.2 nymphs killed) by day 6, while mortality in control groups remained low (1.5 eggs, 2.0 nymphs). In screenhouse trials, A. swirskii significantly reduced S. oleae populations at all predator–prey ratios, with the 1:2 ratio achieving the greatest suppression, reducing densities to 0 eggs and 6 nymphs per plant by week 10, compared to 30 eggs and 110 nymphs in untreated controls. Predator populations increased in a density-dependent manner (T1 > T2 > T3 > T4). Treated plants maintained a high visual quality score (≥9.5 at week 10), whereas untreated plants showed a severe decline (0.9 at week 10). These results demonstrate that A. swirskii effectively suppresses S. oleae and holds promise as a sustainable biological control agent in integrated pest management for olives.

The Hyphantria cunea (Drury) is a highly polyphagous invasive pest that has become widespread and destructive in China. Although sex pheromone components of H. cunea have been identified, the weak field attraction of synthetic sex pheromone has hindered the application of sex pheromone-based lures in efficient monitoring and management of this pest. In this study, the electroantennographic (EAG) and field responses of H. cunea male adults to three synthetic sex pheromone components, including Z9, Z12, Z15-18Ald (C18:Ald), Z3, Z6-9S,10 R-epoxy-21Hy (C21-2Epo), and 1, Z3, Z6-9S,10 R-epoxy-21Hy (C21-3Epo), were evaluated. Male antennae exhibited significant dose-dependent response to three individual components and a ternary mixtures. The younger and virgin male moths showed stronger electrophysiological activity to synthetic compounds, whereas sensitivity decreased significantly after mating. Among the three components, C21-3Epo elicited the strongest antennal responses. Field trapping revealed that neither single compounds nor binary blends attracted males, whereas only the ternary blend of C18:3Ald, C21-2Epo, and C21-3Epo (ratio 8:1:1; 10 mg total load) effectively captured large numbers of males. In addition, the field trapping indicated that the green rubber septum functioned as a practical dispenser for synthetic pheromones. The Unitraps baited with the green rubber septum showed significantly higher trapping efficiency than cotton wicks, highlighting the septum as a promising dispenser for field deployment of synthetic sex pheromones. Finally, the green rubber septum baited with a ternary blend monitored the dynamics of H. cunea occurrence and detected that the emergence period overlapped with the commercially available synthetic lure. In general, the bioactivity of the synthetic sex pheromone of H. cunea was validated. It could effectively capture H. cunea male adults, be used to monitor and control H. cunea, and further be incorporated into the integrated pest management programme.

In tritrophic interactions, host plants could influence not only the population of insect pests but also that of their natural enemies. This study examined the effect of three wheat cultivars on demographic parameters of Schizaphis graminum Rondani (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and its predator, Hippodamia variegata (Goeze) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Furthermore, the secondary metabolites, photosynthetic pigments, and defence enzymes of wheat cultivars were evaluated at different times. According to the results, the highest and lowest developmental times of S. graminum were found on cultivar (cv.) Morvarid and cv. Ehsan, respectively. However, it was vice versa for the predator, being highest on cv. Ehsan and lowest on cv. Morvarid. Adults of S. graminum lived shorter on cv. Morvarid, while males and females of H. variegata lived longer on this cultivar. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) of S. graminum ranged from 0.347 to 0.456 day−1, and that of H. variegata from 0.118 to 0.176 day−1 on different cultivars. The value of this parameter was lowest for aphids but highest for their predator on cv. Morvarid. Based on the results, cv. Morvarid at 120 hours post-infestation by S. graminum contained the greatest concentrations of secondary metabolites and enzyme activities. The time-dependent loss of photosynthetic pigments occurred in each tested cultivar. The results revealed that cv. Morvarid had a suitable potential for reducing the population of S. graminum and enhancing the performance of H. variegata. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the complementary interactions of cv. Morvarid and H. variegata in controlling S. graminum population under natural conditions.

Predatory mites are important biological control agents of spider mites in various crops. Long-term mass rearing on alternative foods, such as plant pollen, may affect their predatory efficiency, but data on Euseius scutalis are scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate whether long-term rearing of E. scutalis on cattail pollen influences its functional response when fed on Tetranychus turkestani. Functional and numerical responses of the predatory mite E. scutalis reared on cattail (Typha latifolia) pollen over 30 generations on different densities (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128) of T. turkestani were evaluated. The results indicated a type II functional response for E. scutalis on T. turkestani in all generations (G1, G10, G20, and G30) tested. The attack rate (a) of E. scutalis increased as the number of generations increased. The handling time decreased as the number of generations increased from G1 (0.330 h) to G10 (0.318 h), then increased in G20 (0.572 h) and then decreased again in G30 (0.385 h). In G1 and G30, the number of eggs deposited by the predator increased as prey density increased. However, in G10 and G20, egg deposition increased up to 64 prey and then slightly decreased at 128 prey. The results indicated that the quality of E. scutalis did not lessen against T. turkestani after different periods of rearing on cattail pollen. Based on this study, we recommend cattail pollen as a good candidate for the large-scale rearing of E. scutalis for use in biological control programmes against T. turkestani.

Parasitoids play a key role in biological control, regulating pest populations in natural and agricultural ecosystems. Their efficiency depends on a thorough understanding of host–parasitoid interactions. Among these, the functional response, the relationship between parasitism rate and host density, plays a critical role. Despite a well-established background, challenges remain in experimental design, model selection, and parameter estimation for functional response analysis in parasitoids. This study aims to provide a practical guide to addressing these challenges. We outline key considerations in experimental design, including the selection of model organisms and initial host densities. For model selection, we present methods to differentiate between Type II and Type III functional responses, identifying the best-fitting models for parasitoids. In parameter estimation, we present an example demonstrating the application of functional response models for each type, including parameter estimation to guide model choice. Additionally, we provide equations and code based on published data to facilitate parameter comparisons. This guide provides a structured framework for experimental design, parameter estimation, and model selection in functional response studies, which is adaptable to various host–parasitoid interactions. By enhancing methodological rigour, we aim to support researchers in improving the precision and applicability of functional response analyses in parasitoid research.

Soybean aphids (Aphis glycines) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) pose a serious threat to global soybean production, necessitating sustainable control strategies. This study investigated silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) as an eco-friendly alternative, hypothesising they would suppress aphid populations while enhancing plant growth. Soybean plants were foliar-sprayed with SiNPs (0–1 mmol/L), and aphids were assessed across six assays: fecundity, survival, feeding preference, weight gain, olfactory response, and plant morphometrics. SiNPs significantly reduced aphid nymphal production and population growth at all concentrations but did not affect survival, weight gain, or host-seeking behaviour. Plant responses were mixed: leaf width increased at higher SiNPs doses, but plant height decreased, with no effects on leaf length, root/shoot biomass, or root length. These findings suggest that SiNPs could disrupt aphid reproduction without triggering behavioural avoidance. The absence of biomass reduction indicates potential for crop compatibility. This laboratory study reveals a novel, reproduction-targeted mode of action for SiNPs, highlighting its potential as a candidate for future development in sustainable IPM strategies. Further field-scale validation is required to confirm these effects under real-world conditions.

Lygus hesperus is an economically important pest of many crops. An effective monitoring method for the early detection of L. hesperus could improve its management. A recently developed pheromone lure has been shown to attract L. hesperus males, however, fewer males were captured than expected. It is unknown whether this was an effect of pheromone responsiveness or the type of trap used. Thus, we compared the efficacy of the previously used white delta sticky traps to red cylindrical sticky traps in strawberry fields in California and cotton fields in Arizona. Collections were made 1 and 2 weeks after trap deployment. In strawberry, pheromone baited traps captured more L. hesperus males than unbaited traps. More males were collected from baited red cylindrical sticky traps compared with either type of unbaited trap. In cotton, baited red cylindrical traps captured more males than unbaited traps after 1 week of field exposure, but not after 2 weeks of deployment. Overall, red cylindrical traps caught more L. hesperus males than white delta traps. Diminished trap captures during the second week of monitoring may be attributed to high temperatures in cotton that likely shortened the lure’s longevity and windy conditions in both strawberry and cotton that may have decreased the effectiveness of the trap’s adhesive. Additional work to clarify the lure’s field longevity and distinguish various elements of trap design (e.g. colour, adhesive, and shape) may further increase the operational effectiveness of pheromone-baited traps for L. hesperus.