Addiction represents conflict between (i) a recognition of a problem and/or (ii) engaging in an activity, while wishing not to engage. Theories of addiction are reviewed: opponent process theory, an adaptive orientation, incentive motivation theory, Wise and Bozarth’s neural model, the incentive sensitization theory and the negative affect model. The wanting part is based in the pathway VTA → NAcc. Sensitization is rooted in this pathway. There is overlap in brain regions excited by drug and erotic images. Orbitofrontal cortex and insula have a role in addiction. The chapter discusses the role of social context in drug-taking, and the rat park is described. The Robins’ study on Vietnam veterans is described. The final section is devoted to the development of drug addiction. In the case of humans, family instability is noted. Early adulthood is a particularly dangerous time for acquiring addictions.

War and society scholarship has changed how historians understand the Korean War, reinterpreting the concept of civil-military relations to broaden its reach, introduce new voices, and incorporate fresh perspectives. The traditional model of civil-military relations centers on the linear interactions between a policy maker, who outlines objectives, and the senior commander tasked with implementing military actions to achieve those desired ends. The clash between President Harry S. Truman and General Douglas MacArthur is the most iconic example of this conventional approach and has held sway over much of the literature. However, there are numerous more subtle instances of civil-military relations during the Korean War that illuminate the valuable contributions that war and society scholarship has made to our understanding of this conflict and that highlight the significant possibilities of expanding our conception of civil-military relations writ large. This chapter explores how unpreparedness for the Korean War collided with the structural racism inherent in the nation’s segregated military, producing significant consequences for both the U.S. military and American society.

Māori comprise 17.4 per cent of the total population of Aotearoa New Zealand. They are a relatively young population, with a median age of 25.5 years for males and 27.6 years for females, compared to the national median age of 37.0 years for males and 39.1 years for females. Contemporary Māori, like their pre-colonised counterparts, are diverse in their identity, with many having connections to iwi (tribal nations) or hapū (constellations of whānau, or extended family networks). Today, rather than being defined solely by iwi and hapū differences, Māori are also diverse regarding their histories of colonisation, their levels of disconnection from te ao Māori (Māori world) and their contemporary social experiences. Disconnection from te ao Māori means not all Māori know their whakapapa (genealogical) connections.

This chapter traces William Burroughs’ encounters with yagé (ayahuasca) as a critical inflection point in his literary development and spiritual imagination. Marcus Boon explores the 1950s Amazonian journeys that led to The Yage Letters (1963) and its expanded edition The Yage Letters Redux (2006), arguing that Burroughs’ experiences with the vine laid the groundwork for his later explorations of language as virus, the cut-up method, and his cosmological vision of control and resistance. Intertwining Cold War paranoia, psychedelic experimentation, and postcolonial critique, Boon situates yagé not as an outlier in Burroughs’ oeuvre but as a key to understanding its epistemological and aesthetic radicalism. The chapter maps Burroughs’ legacy in the broader literary and anthropological discourse on ayahuasca, showing how his early visions resonate with – and complicate – contemporary movements for psychedelic healing, spiritual tourism, and decolonial thought. Burroughs, Boon suggests, helped carry yagé out of the jungle and into a globalized discourse of language, healing, and power.

This chapter analyses the role played by coinage in the Achaemenid empire, exploring the dynamics of royal policy and iconography within the multifaceted political and economic within its imperial space. The vast Persian empire stretched from Mesopotamia and further east to the Aegean Sea. When the Persians captured the Lydian kingdom of Kroisos in 546, at first they took over his coinage in gold and silver, and later, from around 515, they produced distinctively Persian coinage of gold darics and silver sigloi, which had images of an archer, as a symbol of the Persian king. These were only for the western part of their empire, and even there they were not part of a fully coin-using economy. Their purposes were probably gift-giving and payments to mercenary soldiers. Other coinages continued to be made, in electrum, for example at Kyzikos, and especially in silver. A large variety of silver coinages were made at many cities in western Asia Minor and in Cyprus. Some were very small denominations, perhaps to facilitate daily market exchanges. The famous deposits of coins in the Apadana of Persepolis are analysed in detail, and the controversial puzzle of their selection is discussed.

The chapter likens William Burroughs’ symbiotic language ‘organism’ to linguist Noam Chomsky’s contemporaneous language ‘organ’, inferentially an encrypted sub-program in the developing genome. If Burroughs’ verbal symbiont implies a primeval merger at a genetic, or phylogenetic level, it also exhibits an uncanny “othering” of language, absent in Chomsky. Yet both thinkers contest the persistent, commonly held view that language is essentially communication – a vehicle or mechanism bearing a necessary relation to something outside of itself. Rather, both see it as radically inward facing. For Chomsky, language is a tool of thought; for Burroughs, a tool of thought control. Indeed, his word virus evinces an incipient model illustrating parallel forms of encrypted programming, as of an intellectual, psychological, or cybernetic order. The chapter also notes the significance and millennial fortunes of this suggestively Burroughsian paradigm in AI-regulated social media ecosystems, and its preservation in idioms in wide circulation today.

The use of corpora and corpus-based research to create pedagogical materials is still a relatively new development. This chapter begins by operationalizing the terms we use (e.g., authentic, corpus-based/informed/driven) and then surveys recent empirical studies using corpus-informed materials for English language teaching. In addition to surveying existing corpus-informed pedagogical materials, we present a case study that explores similarities and differences between traditional teaching materials and corpus-informed teaching materials. After a description of each of the textbooks we survey, we then compare how the passive is presented across these two types of materials. This is then expanded to look at exercise types and lexical and use information across these materials.In conclusion, we present areas for future research, such as the need for classroom-based research comparing the use of corpus and non-corpus-based materials, exploring the effectiveness of corpus materials for certain grammatical structures, and exploring the effectiveness of specialized corpora for specific contexts of language use.