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2162 results in Cambridge Elements

Page 77 of 109

Philosophy of Developmental Biology

Philosophy of Developmental Biology
  • Marcel Weber
  • Published online:
    16 March 2022
    Print publication:
    21 April 2022
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  • The history of developmental biology is interwoven with debates as to whether mechanistic explanations of development are possible or whether alternative explanatory principles or even vital forces need to be assumed. In particular, the demonstrated ability of embryonic cells to tune their developmental fate precisely to their relative position and the overall size of the embryo was once thought to be inexplicable in mechanistic terms. Taking a causal perspective, this Element examines to what extent and how developmental biology, having turned molecular about four decades ago, has been able to meet the vitalist challenge. It focuses not only on the nature of explanations but also on the usefulness of causal knowledge – including the knowledge of classical experimental embryology – for further scientific discovery. It also shows how this causal perspective allows us to understand the nature and significance of some key concepts, including organizer, signal and morphogen. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Monotheism and Existentialism

Monotheism and Existentialism
  • Deborah Casewell
  • Published online:
    14 March 2022
    Print publication:
    14 April 2022
  • Existentialism is often seen and at times parodied as the philosophy of individuality, authenticity, despair, and defiance in a godless world. However, it cannot be understood without reference to religion, and in particular the monotheism of Christianity. Even the existentialist slogan, 'existence precedes essence', is formulated in relation to monotheism. This Element will show that monotheism and existentialism are intertwined: they react to each other, and share content and concerns. This Element will set out a genealogy of existentialist thought; explore key atheistic and theistic existentialists; and argue that there are productive conversations to be had as regards key concepts such as freedom and authenticity, relationality, and ethics.
Pre-web Digital Publishing and the Lore of Electronic Literature

Pre-web Digital Publishing and the Lore of Electronic Literature
  • Astrid Ensslin
  • Published online:
    10 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • This Element examines a watershed moment in the recent history of digital publishing through a case study of the pre-web, serious hypertext periodical, the Eastgate Quarterly Review of Hypertext (1994-1995). Early hypertext writing relied on standalone, mainframe computers and specialized authoring software. With the Web launching as a mass distribution platform, EQRH faced a fast-evolving technological landscape, paired with an emergent gift and open access economy. Its non-linear writing experiments afford key insights into historical, medium-specific authoring practices. Access constraints have left EQRH under-researched and threatened by obsolescence. To address this challenge, this study offers platform-specific analyses of all the EQRH's cross-media materials, including works that have hitherto escaped scholarly attention. It deploys a form of conceptually oral ethno-historiography: the lore of electronic literature. The Element deepens our understanding of the North American publishing industry's history and contributes to the overdue preservation of early digital writing.
Intercultural and Transcultural Awareness in Language Teaching

Intercultural and Transcultural Awareness in Language Teaching
  • Will Baker
  • Published online:
    10 March 2022
    Print publication:
    07 April 2022
  • The central aim of language teaching is typically to prepare learners to communicate through the language learnt. However, much current language teaching theory and practice is based on a simplistic view of communication that fails to match the multilingual and intercultural reality of the majority of second language (L2) use. This Element examines the relationship between language and culture through an L2 in intercultural and transcultural communication. It puts forward the argument that we need to go beyond communicative competence in language teaching and focus instead on intercultural and transcultural awareness. Implications for pedagogic practice are explored including intercultural and transcultural language education.
Changing Our Ways

Changing Our Ways
  • Behaviour Change and the Climate Crisis
  • Peter Newell, Freddie Daley, Michelle Twena
  • Published online:
    10 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • In this Element, the authors develop an account of the role of behaviour change that is more political and social by bringing questions of power and social justice to the heart of their enquiry in order to appreciate how questions of responsibility and agency are unevenly distributed within and between societies. The result is a more holistic understanding of behaviour, as just one node within an ecosystem of transformation that bridges the individual and systemic. Their account is more attentive to questions of governance and the processes of collective steering necessary to facilitate large scale change across a diversity of actors, sectors and regions than the dominant emphasis on individuals and households. It is also more historical in its approach, looking critically at the relevance of historical parallels regarding large-scale behaviour change and what might be learned and applied to the contemporary context action.
Higher-Order Logic and Type Theory

Higher-Order Logic and Type Theory
  • John L. Bell
  • Published online:
    10 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • This Element is an exposition of second- and higher-order logic and type theory. It begins with a presentation of the syntax and semantics of classical second-order logic, pointing up the contrasts with first-order logic. This leads to a discussion of higher-order logic based on the concept of a type. The second Section contains an account of the origins and nature of type theory, and its relationship to set theory. Section 3 introduces Local Set Theory (also known as higher-order intuitionistic logic), an important form of type theory based on intuitionistic logic. In Section 4 number of contemporary forms of type theory are described, all of which are based on the so-called 'doctrine of propositions as types'. We conclude with an Appendix in which the semantics for Local Set Theory - based on category theory - is outlined.
Ancient Egypt in its African Context

Ancient Egypt in its African Context
  • Economic Networks, Social and Cultural Interactions
  • Andrea Manzo
  • Published online:
    09 March 2022
    Print publication:
    07 April 2022
  • This Element is aimed at discussing the relations between Egypt and its African neighbours. In the first section, the history of studies, the different kind of sources available on the issue, and a short outline of the environmental setting is provided. In the second section the relations between Egypt and its African neighbours from the late Prehistory to Late Antique times are summarized. In the third section the different kinds of interactions are described, as well as their effects on the lives of individuals and groups, and the related cultural dynamics, such as selection, adoption, entanglement and identity building. Finally, the possible future perspective of research on the issue is outlined, both in terms of methods, strategies, themes and specific topics, and of regions and sites whose exploration promises to provide a crucial contribution to the study of the relations between Egypt and Africa.
Violence and the Rise of Centralized States in East Asia

Violence and the Rise of Centralized States in East Asia
  • Mark Edward Lewis
  • Published online:
    09 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • Violence, both physical and nonphysical, is central to any society, but it is a version of the problem that it claims to solve. This Element examines how states in ancient East Asia, from the late Shang through the end of the Han dynasty, wielded violence to create and display authority, and also how their licit violence was entangled in the 'savage' or 'criminal' violence whose suppression justified their power. The East Asian cases are supplemented through citing comparable Western ones. The themes examined include the emergence of the warrior as a human type, the overlap of hunts and combat (and the overlap between treatments of alien species and alien peoples), sacrifice of both alien captives and 'death attendants' from one's own groups, the impact of military specialization and the increased scale of armies, the emergent ideal of self-sacrifice, and the diverse aspects of violence in the regime of law.
God and Prayer

God and Prayer
  • Scott A. Davison
  • Published online:
    08 March 2022
    Print publication:
    07 April 2022
  • Are there good reasons for offering petitionary prayers to God, if God exists? Could such prayers make a difference in the world? Could we ever have good reason to think that such prayers had been answered? In this Element, the author will carefully explore these questions with special attention to recent philosophical discussions.
Heritage Making and Migrant Subjects in the Deindustrialising Region of the Latrobe Valley

Heritage Making and Migrant Subjects in the Deindustrialising Region of the Latrobe Valley
  • Alexandra Dellios
  • Published online:
    07 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • This Element argues that community-initiated migrant heritage harbours the potential to challenge and expand state-sanctioned renderings of multiculturalism in liberal nation-states. In this search for alternative readings, community-initiated migrant heritage is positioned as a grassroots challenge to positivist state-multiculturalism. It can do this if we adopt the migrant perspective, a diasporic perspective of 'settlement' that is always unfinished, non-static, and non-essentialist. As mobile subjects, either once or many times over - a subject position arrived at through acts of mobility, sometimes spawned by violence or structural inequality, which can reverberate throughout subsequent generations - the migrant subject position compels us to look both forwards and backwards in time and place.
Local and Global Controls on Carbon Isotope Chemostratigraphy

Local and Global Controls on Carbon Isotope Chemostratigraphy
  • Anne-Sofie Ahm, Jon Husson
  • Published online:
    07 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • Over million-year timescales, the geologic cycling of carbon controls long-term climate and the oxidation of Earth's surface. Inferences about the carbon cycle can be made from time series of carbon isotopic ratios measured from sedimentary rocks. The foundational assumption for carbon isotope chemostratigraphy is that carbon isotope values reflect dissolved inorganic carbon in a well-mixed ocean in equilibrium with the atmosphere. However, when applied to shallow-water platform environments, where most ancient carbonates preserved in the geological record formed, recent research has documented the importance of considering both local variability in surface water chemistry and diagenesis. These findings demonstrate that carbon isotope chemostratigraphy of platform carbonate rarely represent the average carbonate sink or directly records changes in the composition of global seawater. Understanding what causes local variability in shallow-water settings, and what this variability might reveal about global boundary conditions, are vital questions for the next generation of carbon isotope chemostratigraphers.
Sr Isotopes in Seawater

Sr Isotopes in Seawater
  • Stratigraphy, Paleo-Tectonics, Paleoclimate, and Paleoceanography
  • B. Lynn Ingram, Donald J. DePaolo
  • Published online:
    07 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • Studies of Sr isotopic composition of thousands of samples of marine sediments and fossils have yielded a curve of 87Sr/86Sr versus age for seawater Sr that extends back to 1 billion years. The ratio has fluctuated with large amplitude during this time period, and because the ratio is always uniform in the oceans globally at any one time, it is useful as a stratigraphic correlation and age-dating tool. The ratio also appears to reflect major tectonic and climatic events in Earth history and hence provides clues as to the causes, timing, and consequences of those events. The seawater 87Sr/86Sr ratio is generally high during periods marked by continent-continent collisions, and lower when continental topography is subdued, and seafloor generation rates are high. There is evidence that major shifts in the seawater ratio can be ascribed to specific orogenic events and correlate with large shifts in global climate.
What Every CEO Should Know About AI

What Every CEO Should Know About AI
  • Viktor Dörfler
  • Published online:
    04 March 2022
    Print publication:
    05 May 2022
  • Dr Viktor Dörfler combines his background in developing and implementing AI with scholarly research on knowledge and cultivating talent to address misconceptions about AI. The Element explains what AI can and cannot do, carefully delineating facts from beliefs or wishful thinking. Filled with examples, this practical Element provokes thinking. The purpose is to help CEOs figure out how to make the best use of AI, suggesting how to extract AI's greatest value through appropriate task allocation between human experts and AI. The author challenges the attribution of characteristics like understanding, thinking, and creativity to AI, supporting his argument with the ideas of the finest AI philosophers. He also discusses in depth one of the most sensitive AI-related topics: ethics. The readers are encouraged to make up their own minds about AI and draw their own conclusions rather than accepting opinions from people with vested interests or an agenda.
Natural Language Processing for Corpus Linguistics

Natural Language Processing for Corpus Linguistics
  • Jonathan Dunn
  • Published online:
    04 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • Corpus analysis can be expanded and scaled up by incorporating computational methods from natural language processing. This Element shows how text classification and text similarity models can extend our ability to undertake corpus linguistics across very large corpora. These computational methods are becoming increasingly important as corpora grow too large for more traditional types of linguistic analysis. We draw on five case studies to show how and why to use computational methods, ranging from usage-based grammar to authorship analysis to using social media for corpus-based sociolinguistics. Each section is accompanied by an interactive code notebook that shows how to implement the analysis in Python. A stand-alone Python package is also available to help readers use these methods with their own data. Because large-scale analysis introduces new ethical problems, this Element pairs each new methodology with a discussion of potential ethical implications.
Love in Contemporary Technoculture

Love in Contemporary Technoculture
  • Ania Malinowska
  • Published online:
    01 March 2022
    Print publication:
    31 March 2022
  • This Element outlines the environments of loving in contemporary technoculture and explains the changes in the manner of feelings (including the experience of senses, spaces, and temporalities) in technologically mediated relationships. Synchronic and retrospective in its approach, this Element defines affection (romance, companionship, intimacy etc.) in the reality marked by the material and affective 'intangibility' that has emerged from the rise of digitalism and technological advancement. Analysing the (re)constructions of intimacy, it describes our sensual and somatic experiences in conditions where the human body, believed to be extending itself by means of the media and technological devices, is in fact the extension of the media and their technologies. It is a study that outlines shifts and continuums in the 'practices of togetherness' and which critically rereads late modern paradigms of emotional and affective experiences, filling a gap in the existing critical approaches to technological and technologized love.
Art and the Formation of Early Medieval England

Art and the Formation of Early Medieval England
  • Catherine E. Karkov
  • Published online:
    28 February 2022
    Print publication:
    10 March 2022
  • This Element covers the art produced in early medieval England from the departure of the Romans to the early twelfth century, an art that shows the input of multi-ethnic artists, patrons, and influences as it develops over the centuries. Art in early medieval England is an art of migrants and colonisers and the Element considers the way in which it was defined and developed by the different groups that travelled to or settled on the island. It also explores some of the key forms and images that define the art of the period and the role of both material and artist/patron in their creation. Art is an expression of identity, whether individual, regional, national, religious, or institutional, and this volume sheds light on the way art in early medieval England was and continues to be used to define particular identities, including that of the island on which it was produced.
Physiological Influences of Music in Perception and Action

Physiological Influences of Music in Perception and Action
  • Shannon E. Wright, Valentin Bégel, Caroline Palmer
  • Published online:
    25 February 2022
    Print publication:
    24 March 2022
  • This Element reviews literature on the physiological influences of music during perception and action. It outlines how acoustic features of music influence physiological responses during passive listening, with an emphasis on comparisons of analytical approaches. It then considers specific behavioural contexts in which physiological responses to music impact perception and performance. First, it describes physiological responses to music that evoke an emotional reaction in listeners. Second, it delineates how music influences physiology during music performance and exercise. Finally, it discusses the role of music perception in pain, focusing on medical procedures and laboratory-induced pain with infants and adults.
“Why Aren't They Talking?”

“Why Aren't They Talking?”
  • The Sung-Through Musical from the 1980s to the 2010s
  • Alex Bádue
  • Published online:
    24 February 2022
    Print publication:
    10 March 2022
  • In the American musical theater, the most typical form of structuring musicals has been the book musical, in which songs interrupt spoken dialogue and add means to depict characters and dramatic situations. After 1980, a form of structuring musicals that expands upon the aesthetic conventions of the book musical came to prominence. Sung-through musicals challenged the balance between talking and singing in musical theater in scripts that are entirely or nearly entirely sung. Although often associated with British musicals, this Element focuses on American sung-through musicals composed and premiered between 1980 and 2019. Their creative teams have employed specific procedures and compositional techniques through which music establishes characterization and expression when either very little or nothing is spoken and thus define how the musical reinvented itself toward and in the twenty-first century.
The Expertise of Perception

The Expertise of Perception
  • How Experience Changes the Way We See the World
  • James W. Tanaka, Victoria Philibert
  • Published online:
    24 February 2022
    Print publication:
    24 March 2022
  • How does experience change the way we perceive the world? This Element explores the interaction between perception and experience by studying perceptual experts, people who specialize in recognizing objects such as birds, automobiles, dogs. It proposes perceptual expertise promotes a downward shift in object recognition where experts recognize objects in their domain of expertise at a more specific level than novices. To support this claim, it examines the recognition abilities and brain mechanisms of real-world experts. It discusses the acquisition of expertise by tracing the cognitive and neural changes that occur as a novice becomes an expert through training and experience. Next, it looks “under the hood” of expertise and examines the perceptual features that experts bring to bear to facilitate their fast, accurate, and specific recognition. The final section considers the future of human expertise as deep learning models and artificial intelligence compete with human experts in medical diagnosis.
Can BRICS De-dollarize the Global Financial System?

Can BRICS De-dollarize the Global Financial System?
  • Zongyuan Zoe Liu, Mihaela Papa
  • Published online:
    24 February 2022
    Print publication:
    24 March 2022
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  • Existing scholarship has not systematically examined BRICS (Brazil-Russia-India-China-South Africa) as a rising power de-dollarization coalition, despite the group developing multiple de-dollarization initiatives to reduce currency risk and bypass US sanctions. To fill this gap, this study develops a 'Pathways to De-dollarization' framework and applies it to analyze the institutional and market mechanisms that BRICS countries have created at the BRICS, sub-BRICS, and BRICS Plus levels. This framework identifies the leaders and followers of the BRICS de-dollarization coalition, assesses its robustness, and discerns how BRICS mobilizes other stakeholders. The authors employ process tracing, content analysis, semi-structured interviews, archival research, and statistical analysis of quantitative market data to analyze BRICS activities during 2009-2021. They find that BRICS' coalitional de-dollarization initiatives have established critical infrastructure for a prospective alternative nondollar global financial system. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Page 77 of 109