Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-9nbrm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-03-29T08:53:47.500Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Précis of Talking to Our Selves: Reflection, Ignorance, and Agency

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2016

John M. Doris
John M. Doris*
Affiliation:
Philosophy-Neuroscience-Psychology Program, Philosophy Department, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130jdoris@wustl.eduhttp://www.moralpsychology.net/jdoris/
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Does it make sense for people to hold one another responsible for what they do, as happens in countless social interactions every day? One of the most unsettling lessons from recent psychological research is that people are routinely mistaken about the origins of their behavior. Yet philosophical orthodoxy holds that the exercise of morally responsible agency typically requires accurate self-awareness. If the orthodoxy is right, and the psychology is to be believed, people characteristically fail to meet the standards of morally responsible agency, and we are faced with the possibility of skepticism about agency. Unlike many philosophers, I accept the unsettling lesson from psychology. I insist, however, that we are not driven to skepticism. Instead, we should reject the requirement of accurate self-awareness for morally responsible agency. In Talking to Our Selves I develop a dialogic theory, where the exercise of morally responsible agency emerges through a collaborative conversational process by which human beings, although afflicted with a remarkable degree of self-ignorance, are able to realize their values in their lives.

Keywords

agencycharacterconfabulationdeliberationethicsmoralitypsychologyreasoningreflectionresponsibilitythe selfself-knowledgevalue

Information

Type
Précis
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 41 , 2018 , e36
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Alicke, M. D., Vredenburg, D. S., Hiatt, M. & Govorun, O. (2001) The “better than myself” effect. Motivation and Emotion 25(1):7–22.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. J., Bahník, Š., Barnett-Cowan, M., Bosco, F. A., Chandler, J., Chartier, C.R., Cheung, F., Christopherson, C. D., Cordes, A., Cremata, E. J., Della Penna, N., Estel, V., Fedor, A., Fitneva, S. A., Frank, M. C., Grange, J. A., Hartshorne, J. K., Hasselman, F., Henninger, F., van der Hulst, M., Jonas, K. J., Lai, C. K., Levitan, C. A., Miller, J. K., Moore, K. S., Meixner, J. M., Munafò, M. R., Neijenhuijs, K. I., Nilsonne, G., Nosek, B. A., Plessow, F., Prenoveau, J. M., Ricker, A. A., Schmidt, K., Spies, J. R., Stieger, S., Strohminger, N., Sullivan, G. B., van Aert, R. C., van Assen, M. A., Vanpaemel, W., Vianello, M., Voracek, M. & Zuni, K. (2016) Response to comment on “estimating the reproducibility of psychological science.” Science 351(6277):1037.Google Scholar
Appiah, K. A. (2010) The ethics of identity. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Arpaly, N. (2002) Unprincipled virtue: An inquiry into moral agency. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baker, L. A. & Emery, R. E. (1993) When every relationship is above average: Perceptions and expectations of divorce at the time of marriage. Law and Human Behavior 17(4):439.Google Scholar
Beevers, C. G. (2005) Cognitive vulnerability to depression: A dual process model. Clinical Psychology Review 25(7):975–1002.Google Scholar
Blackburn, R. T. & Clark, M. J. (1975) An assessment of faculty performance: Some correlates between administrator, colleague, student and self-ratings. Sociology of Education 48(2):242–56.Google Scholar
Bloom, P. (2014) The war on reason. The Atlantic. Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/03/the-war-on-reason/357561/Google Scholar
Boyer-Pennington, M. E., Pennington, J. & Spink, C. (2001) Students' expectations and optimism toward marriage as a function of parental divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 34(3–4):71–87.Google Scholar
Bratman, M. E. (2007) Structures of agency: Essays. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bray, J. H. & Jouriles, E. N. (1995) Treatment of marital conflict and prevention of divorce. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 21(4):461–73.Google Scholar
Brenner, B. (1979) Depressed affect as a cause of associated somatic problems. Psychological Medicine 9(4):737–46.Google Scholar
Brown, J., Dreis, S. & Nace, D. K. (1999) What really makes a difference in psychotherapy outcome? Why does managed care want to know? In: The heart and soul of change: What works in therapy, ed. Hubble, M. A., Duncan, B. L. & Miller, S. D., pp. 389–406. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Christensen, W., Sutton, J. & McIlwain, D. J. (2016) Cognition in skilled action: Meshed control and the varieties of skill experience. Mind & Language 31(1):37–66.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edition. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cross, K. P. (1977) Not can, but will college teaching be improved? New Directions for Higher Education 17:1–15.Google Scholar
Cushman, F., Young, L. & Greene, J. D. (2010) Multi-system moral psychology. In: The moral psychology handbook, ed. Doris, J. M. & the Moral Psychology Research Group, pp. 47–71. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
D'Arms, J. & Jacobson, D. (2000) The moralistic fallacy: On the “appropriateness” of emotions. Philosophical and Phenomenological Research 61(1):65–90.Google Scholar
D'Arms, J. & Jacobson, D. (2006) Anthropocentric constraints on human value. Oxford Studies in Metaethics 1:99–126.Google Scholar
Darley, J. M. & Latané, B. (1968) Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8:(4, Pt. 1):377–83.Google Scholar
Davies, P. S. (2009) Subjects of the world: Darwin's rhetoric and the study of agency in nature. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Davis, D., Sundahl, I. & Lesbo, M. (2000) Illusory personal control as a determinant of bet size and type in casino craps games. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30(6):1224–42.Google Scholar
Dawes, R. M. (1994) Psychotherapy: The myth of expertise. In: House of cards: Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth, ed. Dawes, R. M., pp. 38–74. Free Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, E., Gilovich, T. & Regan, D. T. (2002) Motivated reasoning and performance on the Wason card election task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28(10):1379–87.Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1991) The reality of selves. In: Consciousness explained, ed. Dennett, D. C., pp. 412–30. Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1992) The self as a center of narrative gravity. In: Self and consciousness: Multiple perspectives, ed. Kessel, F. S., Cole, P. M. & Johnson, D. L., pp. 103–15. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Diener, E. & Chan, M. Y. (2011) Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being 3(1):1–43.Google Scholar
Ditto, P. H. & Lopez, D. F. (1992) Motivated skepticism: Use of differential decision criteria for preferred and nonpreferred conclusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63(4):568–84.Google Scholar
Divorce Magazine. (2004) U.S. divorce statistics [data file]. Retrieved from DivorceMagazine.com: http://www.divorcemag.com/statistics/statsUS.shtml.Google Scholar
Doris, J. M. (2002) Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Doris, J. M. (2015a) Doing without (arguing about) desert. Philosophical Studies 172(10):2625–34.Google Scholar
Doris, J. M. (2015b). Talking to our selves: Reflection, ignorance, and agency. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dufner, M., Denissen, J. J., Zalk, M., Matthes, B., Meeus, W. H., van Aken, M. A. & Sedikides, C. (2012) Positive intelligence illusions: On the relation between intellectual self-enhancement and psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality 80(3):537–72.Google Scholar
Dunning, D. (1999) A newer look: Motivated social cognition and the schematic representation of social concepts. Psychological Inquiry 10(1):1–11.Google Scholar
Dunning, D. (2006) Self-insight: Roadblocks and detours on the path to knowing thyself. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dunning, D., Kunda, Z. & Murray, S. L. (1999) What the commentators motivated us to think about. Psychological Inquiry 10(1):79–82.Google Scholar
Evans, J. S. B. & Frankish, K. E. (2009) In two minds: Dual processes and beyond. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, J. S. B. & Over, D. E. (1996) Rationality and reasoning. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Farrell, C., Cowley, E. & Edwardson, M. (2005) Strategies to improve the probability of winning a lottery: Gamblers and their illusions of control. European Advances in Consumer Research 7:597–601.Google Scholar
Fiore, M. C., Bailey, W. C., Cohen, S. J., Dorfman, S. F., Goldstein, M. G., Gritz, E. R., Heyman, R. B., Jaen, C. R., Kottke, T. E., Lando, H. A. & Mecklenburg, R. E. (2000) Treating tobacco use and dependence: Clinical practice guideline. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Fischer, J. M. (2006) My way: Essays on moral responsibility. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, J. M. (2009) Our stories: Essays on life, death, and free will. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, J. M. & Ravizza, M. (1998) Responsibility and control: A theory of moral responsibility. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fowers, B. J., Lyons, E., Montel, K. H. & Shaked, N. (2001) Positive illusions about marriage among married and single individuals. Journal of Family Psychology 15:95–109.Google Scholar
Frances, B. (2005) When a skeptical hypothesis is live. Noûs 39:559–95.Google Scholar
Frankish, K. & Evans, J. St. B. T. (2009) The duality of mind: An historical perspective. In: In two minds: Dual processes and beyond, ed. Evans, J. & Frankish, K., pp. 1–29. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Funder, D. C. & Ozer, D. J. (1983) Behavior as a function of the situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1):107–12.Google Scholar
Gallagher, S. (2000) Philosophical conceptions of the self: Implications for cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4(1):14–21.Google Scholar
Gantz, T. & Henkle, G. (2002) Seatbelts: Current issues. Prevention Institute. Retrieved from: http://www.preventioninstitute.org/traffic_seatbelt.html.Google Scholar
Gibbard, A. (1990) Wise choices, apt feelings: A theory of normative judgment. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gilbert, D. T., King, G., Pettigrew, S. & Wilson, T. D. (2016) Comment on estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science 351:1037-a–38-a.Google Scholar
Gilbert, D. T., Pelham, B. W. & Krull, D. S. (1988) On cognitive busyness: When person perceivers meet persons perceived. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54(5):733–40.Google Scholar
Gilovich, T. (1991) How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. The Free Press.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R. & Nosek, B. A. (2015) Statistically small effects of the Implicit Association Test can have societally large effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108(4):553–61.Google Scholar
Hahlweg, K. & Richtera, D. (2010) Prevention of marital instability and distress. Results of an 11-year longitudinal follow-up study. Behavior Research and Therapy 48:377–83.Google Scholar
Hall, L., Johansson, P. & Strandberg, T. (2012) Lifting the veil of morality: Choice blindness and attitude reversals on a self-transforming survey. PLoS ONE 7(9):e45457. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045457.Google Scholar
Hall, L., Johansson, P., Tärning, B., Sikström, S. & Deutgen, T. (2010) Magic at the marketplace: Choice blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea. Cognition 117(1):54–61.Google Scholar
Hall, L., Strandberg, T., Pärnamets, P., Lind, A., Tärning, B. & Johansson, P. (2013) How the polls can be both spot on and dead wrong: Using choice blindness to shift political attitudes and voter intentions. PLoS ONE 8(4):e60554.Google Scholar
Harman, G. (2000) Explaining value and other essays in moral philosophy. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hemphill, J. F. (2003) Interpreting the magnitudes of correlation coefficients. American Psychologist 58(1):78–80.Google Scholar
Hirstein, W. (2005) Brain fiction: Self-deception and the riddle of confabulation. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Horvath, A. O. & Symonds, B. D. (1991) Relation between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology 38 (2):139-159.Google Scholar
Inbar, Y. (2016) Association between contextual dependence and replicability in psychology may be spurious. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(34):E4933–E4934.Google Scholar
Jennings, D., Amabile, T. M. & Ross, L. (1982) Informal covariation assessment: Data-based vs. theory-based judgments. In: Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases, ed. Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. & Slovic, P., pp. 211–30. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Johansson, P., Hall, L., Sikström, S., Tärning, B. & Lind, A. (2006) How something can be said about telling more than we can know: On choice blindness and introspection. Consciousness and Cognition 15(4):673–92.Google Scholar
Johnson, S. C. (2003) Detecting agents. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 358(1431):549–59.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. & Frederick, S. (2002) Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In: Heuristics and biases, ed. Gilovich, T., Griffin, D. & Kahneman, D., pp. 49–81. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Keren, G. & Schul, Y. (2009) Two is not always better than one: A critical evaluation of two-system theories. Perspectives on Psychological Science 4(6):533–50.Google Scholar
Kornblith, H. (2010) What reflective endorsement cannot do. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 80(1):1–19.Google Scholar
Kornblith, H. (2012) On reflection. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Korsgaard, C. M. (1996) The sources of normativity. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Korsgaard, C. M. (2009) Self-constitution: Agency, identity, and integrity. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krosnick, J. A., Miller, J. M. & Tichy, M. P. (2004) An unrecognized need for ballot reform: Effects of candidate name order. In: Rethinking the vote: The politics and prospects of American election reform, ed. Crigler, A. N., Just, M. R. & McCaffery, E. J., pp. 51–74. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W. (1996) Motivated social cognition: Principles of the interface. In: Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles, ed. Higgins, E. T. & Kruglanski, A. W., pp. 493–520. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Krupnick, J. L., Sotsky, S. M., Simmens, S., Moyher, J., Elkin, I., Watkins, J. & Pilkonis, P. A. (1996) The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy outcome: Findings in the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Project. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:532–39.Google Scholar
Kunda, Z. (1990) The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 108:480–98.Google Scholar
Lambert, M. J. & Ogles, B. M. (2004) The efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy. In: Bergin and Garfield's handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change, ed. Lambert, M. J., pp. 139–93. Wiley.Google Scholar
Langer, E. J. (1975) The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32:311–28.Google Scholar
Levy, N. (2011) Hard luck: How luck undermines free will and moral responsibility. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Luborsky, L., McLellan, A. T., Woody, G. E., O'Brien, C. P. & Auerbach, A. (1985) Therapist success and its determinants. Archives of General Psychiatry 42:602–11.Google Scholar
Luborsky, L. & Singer, B. (1975) Comparative studies of psychotherapies: Is it true that “Everyone has won and all must have prizes”? Archives of General Psychiatry 32:995–1008.Google Scholar
Lutz, G. (2010) First come, first served: The effect of ballot position on electoral success in open ballot PR elections. Representation 46:167–81.Google Scholar
Machery, E. (2009) Doing without concepts. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Machery, E. & Doris, J. M. (2017) An open letter to our students: Doing interdisciplinary moral psychology. In: Moral psychology: A multidisciplinary guide, ed. Voyer, B. G. & Tarantola, T., pp. 119–43. Springer.Google Scholar
Marcinkiewicz, K. (2014) Electoral contexts that assist voter coordination: Ballot position effects in Poland. Electoral Studies 33:322–34.Google Scholar
Martin, D. J., Garske, J. P. & Davis, M. K. (2000) Relation of the therapeutic alliance with outcome and other variables: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68(3):438.Google Scholar
Meredith, M. & Salant, Y. (2013) On the causes and consequences of ballot order effects. Political Behavior 35(1):175–97.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. & Mischel, W. (1999) A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review 106(1):3.Google Scholar
Meyer, G. J., Finn, S. E., Eyde, L. D., Kay, G. G., Moreland, K. L., Dies, R. R., Eisman, E. J., Kubiszyn, T. W. & Reed, G. M. (2001) Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American psychologist 56(2):128–65.Google Scholar
Montero, B. (2010) Does bodily awareness interfere with highly skilled movement? Inquiry 53(2):105–22.Google Scholar
Moran, R. (2001) Authority and estrangement: An essay on self-knowledge. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Nahmias, E. (2011) Intuitions about free will, determinism, and bypassing. In: Oxford handbook of free will, 2nd edition, ed. Kane, R., pp. 555–76. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nelkin, D. (2011) Making sense of freedom and responsibility. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nichols, S. (2007) After incompatibilism: A naturalistic defense of the reactive attitudes. Philosophical Perspectives 21(1):405–28.Google Scholar
Noë, A. (2012) Varieties of presence. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Noonan, H. (1989) Personal identity. Routledge.Google Scholar
Norman, J. (2002) Two visual systems and two theories of perception: An attempt to reconcile the constructivist and ecological approaches. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25(1):73–96.Google Scholar
Open Science Collaboration (2015) Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science 349(6251):aac4716.Google Scholar
Orlinsky, D. E., Ronnestad, M. H. & Willutzki, U. (2004) Fifty years of process-outcome research: Continuity and change. In: Bergin and Garfield's handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change, 5th edition, ed. Lambert, M. J., pp. 307–89. Wiley.Google Scholar
Prinz, J. J. (2004) Gut reactions: A perceptual theory of emotion. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Railton, P. (2003) Facts, values, and norms: Essays toward a morality of consequence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, V. S. (1996) What neurological syndromes can tell us about human nature: Some lessons from phantom limbs, Capgras' syndrome, and anosognosia. In: Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, vol. 61, pp. 115–34. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S. (1993) Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III (1990) Implicit memory: Retention without remembering. American Psychologist 45:1043–56.Google Scholar
Sayers, S. L., Kohn, C. S. & Heavey, C. (1998) Prevention of marital dysfunction: Behavioral approaches and beyond. Clinical Psychology Review 18(6):713–44.Google Scholar
Schechtman, M. (1996) The constitution of selves. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Schechtman, M. (2011) The narrative self. In: The Oxford handbook of the self, ed. Gallagher, S., pp. 394–416. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review 84(1):1–66.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1993) What you can change and what you can't: The complete guide to successful self-improvement. Knopf.Google Scholar
Shults, R. A., Elder, R. W., Sleet, D. A., Thompson, R. S. & Nichols, J. L. (2004) Primary enforcement seat belt laws are effective even in the face of rising belt use rates. Accident Analysis & Prevention 36(3):491–93.Google Scholar
Simon, J. (1998) An analysis of the distribution of combinations chosen by UK national lottery players. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 17(3):243–77.Google Scholar
Smith, A. M. (2005) Responsibility for attitudes: Activity and passivity in mental life. Ethics 115(2):236–71.Google Scholar
Snyder, D. K., Castellani, A. M. & Whisman, M. A. (2006) Current status and future directions in couple therapy. Annual Review of Psychology 57:317–44.Google Scholar
Sripada, C. (2015a) Moral responsibility, reasons, and the self. Oxford Studies in Agency and Responsibility 3:242–64.Google Scholar
Sripada, C. (2015b) Self-expression: A deep self theory of moral responsibility. Philosophical Studies 175(5):1203–232.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (2004) The robo's rebellion: Finding meaning in the age of Darwin. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Steptoe, A., Wardle, J. & Marmot, M. (2005) Positive affect and health-related neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory processes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102(18):6508–12.Google Scholar
Strawson, G. (2004) Against narrativity. Ratio 17(4):428–52.Google Scholar
Strawson, P. F. (1962) Freedom and resentment. Proceedings of the British Academy 48:1–25.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. (1994) The politics of recognition. In: Multiculturalism: Examining the politics of recognition, ed. Gutmann, A., pp. 25–73. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M. & McDowell, N. K. (2003) Are self-enhancing cognitions associated with healthy or unhealthy biological profiles? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85(4):605–15.Google Scholar
Thompson, S. C., Sobolew-Shubin, A., Galbraith, M. E., Schwankovsky, L. & Cruzen, D. (1993) Maintaining perceptions of control: Finding perceived control in low-control circumstances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64(2):293–304.Google Scholar
Tiberius, V. (2002) Virtue and practical deliberation. Philosophical Studies 111(2):147–72.Google Scholar
Toneatto, T., Blitz-Miller, T., Calderwood, K., Dragonetti, R. & Tsanos, A. (1997) Cognitive distortions in heavy gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies 13(3):253–66.Google Scholar
Van Bavel, J. J., Mende-Siedlecki, P., Brady, W. J. & Reinero, D. A. (2016) Contextual sensitivity in scientific reproducibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(23):6454–59.Google Scholar
Vargas, M. (2004) Responsibility and the aims of theory: Strawson and revisionism. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 85(2):218–41.Google Scholar
Vargas, M. (2008) Moral influence, moral responsibility. In: Essays on free will and moral responsibility, ed. Trakakis, N. & Cohen, D., pp. 90–122. Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Vargas, M. (2013) Building better beings: A theory of moral responsibility. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Veenhoven, R. (1988) The utility of happiness. Social Indicators Research 20(4):333–54.Google Scholar
Velleman, J. D. (1989) Practical reflection. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Velleman, J. D. (2000) The possibility of practical reason. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Velleman, J. D. (2006) Self to self: Selected essays. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wallace, R. J. (2003) Addiction as defect of the will: Some philosophical reflections. In: Free will, 2nd edition, ed. Watson, G., pp. 424–52. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wallace, R. J. (2006) Normativity and the will. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wampold, B. E., Mondin, G. W., Moody, M., Stich, F., Benson, K. & Ahn, H. N. (1997) A meta-analysis of outcome studies comparing bona fide psychotherapies: Empirically, “all must have prizes.” Psychological Bulletin 122(3):203.Google Scholar
Watson, G. (1975) Free agency. Journal of Philosophy 72(8):205–220.Google Scholar
Watson, G. (1993) Responsibility and the limits of evil: Variations on a Strawsonian theme. In: Perspectives on moral responsibility, ed. Fischer, J. M. & Ravizza, M., pp. 119–50. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, G. (1996) Two faces of responsibility. Philosophical Topics 24(2):227–48.Google Scholar
Webber, R., Rallings, C., Borisyuk, G. & Thrasher, M. (2014) Ballot order positional effects in British local elections, 1973–2011. Parliamentary Affairs 67 (1):119–36.Google Scholar
Wegner, D. M. (2002) The illusion of conscious will. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Wegner, D. M. (2005) Who is the controller of controlled processes? In: The new unconscious, ed. Hassin, R. R., Uleman, J. S. & Bargh, J. A., pp. 19–36. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, T. D. (2002) Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Belknap.Google Scholar
Woolfolk, R. L. (1998) The cure of souls: Science, values, and psychotherapy. Jossey Bass.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, E. W. & Jost, J. T. (2001) What makes you think you're so popular? Self-evaluation maintenance and the subjective side of the “friendship paradox.” Social Psychology Quarterly 64(3):207–23.Google Scholar