Few studies examine the relationship between physical activity, multiple physical fitness domains (cardiorespiratory fitness, strength, speed), and cognition. Our objective was to investigate the association between physical activity and executive function in middle-aged and older adults and examine whether modifiable physical fitness components explain the relationship between physical activity and cognition.

Self-reported moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and objective measures of cardiorespiratory fitness (2-minute walk test), strength (grip strength), speed (4-meter walk test), and executive function were collected from 623 adults within the Human Connectome Project–Aging (ages 36 – 100 years; mean = 59.2 years; 57.8% female). Relative importance metrics, multiple regression, and conditional process analysis were used to examine relationships of age, physical activity, and physical fitness with executive function.

Greater physical fitness was related to better executive function performance (β = 0.28, p < .001). Physical activity was not associated with executive function (β = −0.04, p = .16). There was an indirect relationship between physical activity and executive function through physical fitness (ab = 0.02, 95% CI: 0.004 – 0.04). This association was explained primarily by the indirect association of cardiorespiratory fitness with physical activity and executive function. The indirect association of cardiorespiratory fitness with physical activity and executive function was significant in older study participants (mean (59 years) and + 1 SD (74 years)), but not younger (−1 SD (44 years)), although between-group comparisons were not significant.

These data highlight potential differential associations with cognition when considering physical activity and physical fitness, and the importance of considering multiple domains of physical fitness in relation to physical activity and cognitive performance.

Independence in everyday functioning has been associated with successful aging and declines in functioning may be indicative of pathological cognitive decline. Social determinants of health, like economic status and access to health care, a]lso play a role in everyday functioning. Understanding these factors are of particular importance for older Black adults who have had long-standing disparate access to care, education, and treatments. The current study aimed to evaluate social determinants of health, more specifically social engagement, as moderators of the association between cognition and everyday functioning.

A sample of 930 older Black adults from Rush University: The Memory and Aging Project, African American Clinical Core, and Minority Adult Research Study were used. Participants completed a battery of neuropsychological testing as well as questionnaires about their everyday functioning and social behaviors. Hierarchical linear regressions were utilized to determine to what extent social factors moderated the relationship between cognition and everyday functioning.

Late life social activity reduced the effect of global cognition on everyday functioning and was independently associated with everyday functioning. Social network size was associated with increased impairment.

Results from the current study provide novel information regarding the role of social interaction on cognition in an older Black adult sample. Future interventions may benefit from an emphasis on increasing social engagement.

Being married may protect late-life cognition. Less is known about living arrangement among unmarried adults and mechanisms such as brain health (BH) and cognitive reserve (CR) across race and ethnicity or sex/gender. The current study examines (1) associations between marital status, BH, and CR among diverse older adults and (2) whether one’s living arrangement is linked to BH and CR among unmarried adults.

Cross-sectional data come from the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project (N = 778, 41% Hispanic, 33% non-Hispanic Black, 25% non-Hispanic White; 64% women). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) markers of BH included cortical thickness in Alzheimer’s disease signature regions and hippocampal, gray matter, and white matter hyperintensity volumes. CR was residual variance in an episodic memory composite after partialing out MRI markers. Exploratory analyses stratified by race and ethnicity and sex/gender and included potential mediators.

Marital status was associated with CR, but not BH. Compared to married individuals, those who were previously married (i.e., divorced, widowed, and separated) had lower CR than their married counterparts in the full sample, among White and Hispanic subgroups, and among women. Never married women also had lower CR than married women. These findings were independent of age, education, physical health, and household income. Among never married individuals, living with others was negatively linked to BH.

Marriage may protect late-life cognition via CR. Findings also highlight differential effects across race and ethnicity and sex/gender. Marital status could be considered when assessing the risk of cognitive impairment during routine screenings.

Familiarity, the sense of knowing without recalling specific details, plays a critical role in memory processing and is mediated by the perirhinal cortex (PRC), a brain region that is critical for differentiating objects with high feature overlap, and is affected first by amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Investigating familiarity in aMCI is crucial for insights into early diagnostic markers of cognitive impairment.

We conducted two studies probing familiarity in aMCI. The first study employed a response deadline procedure (RDP) where participants were presented with pictures of objects and then completed an item recognition test under two deadlines: a long deadline of 5000 ms, indexing recollection, and a short deadline of 1200ms, indexing familiarity. The second study utilized a frequency judgment (FJ) task in which participants saw pictures of highly similar objects a variable number of times, and then were asked how many times each object was presented. Their frequency judgments were correlated with the actual presentation frequencies as a measure of familiarity.

In the RDP, individuals with aMCI had significantly lower recognition accuracy than healthy counterparts, in the long and short deadline, indicating impaired recollection and familiarity. In the FJ task, individuals with aMCI had significantly lower frequency judgment correlations, indicating impaired familiarity.

These results highlight the importance of minimizing the role of recollection when aiming to understand familiarity deficits and underscore the potential of familiarity as an early diagnostic marker of cognitive decline.

The primary aim of this study was to evaluate whether military occupations with repetitive exposure to low-level blast (i.e., breachers and snipers) display poorer neurocognitive status compared to military controls without prior occupational engagement as breachers and/or snipers, and whether that effect is mediated by self-reported mental health symptoms.

With data collected from Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) breachers and snipers and sex- and age-matched CAF controls (n = 112), mental health was assessed using the PCL-5 (PTSD) and the Brief Symptoms Inventory, and neurocognitive function based on a set of computerized tasks (i.e., four-choice reaction time task, delayed matching-to-sample, n-back, Stroop). Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) were created to establish a causal framework describing the potential effect of occupation on neurocognitive function while considering mental health. Factor analysis modeling was used to establish the latent construct of neurocognitive function, which was then incorporated into student-t models for effect estimation, following assumptions derived from causal inference principles.

Our results demonstrated that it is snipers specifically who displayed lower neurocognitive performance compared to breachers and controls. Critically, this effect was not mediated by mental health status. In fact, mental health was generally better in both breachers and snipers when compared to controls.

When the focus is on occupations with repetitive exposure to low-level blast, the snipers in particular are impacted most in terms of neurocognitive function. We speculate that this might be due to additional impact of recoil forces exacerbating the effect of blast overpressure on the nervous system.

To examine the relationship between children’s adaptive functioning and neighborhood resources – such as school quality, access to healthy food, green spaces, and housing quality – using a large, diverse clinical outpatient sample.

Pediatric outpatients (N = 6,942; age M = 10.44 years; 67.0% male; 50.3% White; 33.9% Medicaid), aged 1-18, who underwent neuropsychological or psychological evaluation were included if their caregiver completed the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, 3rd Edition (ABAS-3) and had a nationally normed Child Opportunity Index (COI) score, a composite measure of 29 geo-coded neighborhood characteristics.

Children from higher-opportunity neighborhoods demonstrated significantly stronger adaptive functioning across conceptual, social, and practical domains. Those in the top 40% of neighborhood advantage exhibited stronger adaptive skills than those in the bottom 60%. Neighborhood resources and family financial resources were associated with greater adaptive skills beyond child age, sex, and racial/ethnic background.

Neighborhood resources are linked to children’s adaptive functioning, possibly due to increased opportunities to practice these skills in safer, more supportive environments. These findings emphasize the importance of considering environmental factors in assessing adaptive skills and highlight the need for public health investments and legislation related to community resources.

Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) is a leading cause of childhood disability, yet educators report a gap in knowledge about supporting students with ABI when they return to school. We tested our TeachABI professional development module to examine how it impacted educators’ ABI knowledge and self-efficacy for supporting students with ABI.

Fifty educators filled out questionnaires about their knowledge and self-efficacy at three time points: pre-module, post-module, and 60 days post-module. Score differences were examined across time.

Participants’ ABI knowledge, subjective knowledge of the module learning objectives, and self-efficacy increased from pre- to post-module, and these gains were maintained at 60 days.

This suggests that TeachABI is a tool for better equipping educators to support students with ABI.

Accurate appraisal of one’s own abilities (i.e., insight) is necessary for appropriate compensatory behaviors and sustained independence during aging. Although insight is often purported to be related to executive functioning (EF), nuanced understanding of the cognitive correlates of insight for functional abilities among nondemented older adults is lacking. Because insight shares neuroanatomic underpinnings with time-based prospective memory (PM), the present study examined the contributions of time-based PM, beyond event-based PM and other potential cognitive confounds (i.e., episodic memory, time estimation, and EF), in predicting insight into one’s own performance on instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) among community-dwelling older adults.

A group of 88 nondemented, community-dwelling older adults completed performance-based measures of time- and event-based PM, episodic memory, time estimation, and EF, as well as IADL tasks followed by self-appraisals of their own IADL performance as indices of insight.

Time-based PM was moderately-to-strongly associated with insight, beyond event-based PM, time estimation, and episodic memory [F(1,83) = 11.58, p = .001, ηp2 = .122], as well as beyond EF and demographic covariates [F(1,79) = 10.72, p = .002, ηp2 = .119].Specifically, older adults who performed more poorly on a time-based PM task overestimated the efficiency of their own IADL performance to a greater extent.

Findings suggest that nondemented older adults with poorer time-based PM may be more prone to inaccurately appraising their functional abilities and that this vulnerability may not be adequately captured by traditional EF measures.

This study aims to investigate action language processing abilities in Parkinson’s disease (PD) compared to healthy controls (HCs), specifically examining whether the involvement of motor systems is influenced by task context. By focusing on implicit versus explicit task demands, the study evaluates how semantic processing differs in PD and whether these differences align with a flexible embodied cognition framework.

The study analyzed the performance of participants on two tasks: an explicit task (semantic judgment task, SJ) and an implicit task (letter detection task, LD). PD outpatients (n = 31, mean age 64.58 years) referred to the Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit of ICS Maugeri Hermitage were enrolled, along with a group of healthy controls (n = 31, mean age 64.19 years). Performance was measured through reaction times (RTs) and accuracy scores (Acc) during the processing of action verbs and abstract verbs.

PD patients exhibited slower RTs and lower accuracy when processing action verbs compared to abstract verbs, but only during the SJ task. Slower RTs in the SJ task were predicted by language and executive functioning (semantic fluency) and disease progression (Hoehn and Yahr stages) for both action and abstract verbs. In the LD task, slower RTs were predicted by executive functioning for action verbs and attention (measured by Trail Making Test Part B and Stroop task) for abstract verbs.

The findings suggest a context-dependent involvement of the motor system in action language processing, supporting a flexible, embodied approach to conceptual semantic processing rather than an automatic one.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is linked to later-life cognitive decline and brain aging, but early detection of vulnerability in midlife remains challenging. This study applied two methods to detect subtle changes in midlife adults with MetS: (1) latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify cognitive performance patterns and (2) an MRI-derived brain-predicted age metric to assess structural brain aging.

Participants were cognitively unimpaired, community-dwelling adults from prior studies on metabolic and brain health (N = 230; ages 40 – 65). MetS status was assigned using clinical criteria based on cardiovascular indicators and medical history. Cognitive test scores, adjusted for age, sex, and education, were analyzed using LPA, identifying four cognitive subgroups: High Memory, Low Executive, Global Average, and Low Memory. T1-weighted MRI scans were processed with brainageR to compute brain-predicted age difference (PAD). Analyses were conducted in R using chi-square tests, ANCOVA, regression, and nonparametric methods, with appropriate covariates and effect size estimates.

MetS prevalence differed across cognitive profiles (χ2 = 10.99, p = .012, V = 0.22), with higher rates in the Low Memory and Global Average groups than in the High Memory group. Individuals without MetS had younger brain ages than those with MetS (p = 0.003, η2 = 0.03). Only elevated triglycerides were associated with greater PAD (p = 0.012, η2 = 0.02). A Johnson–Neyman analysis showed the MetS–PAD association was significant between ages 40.0 and 54.6. PAD did not differ by cognitive profile.

Cognitive profiles and brain-predicted age metrics identify early vulnerability in midlife MetS, underscoring the importance of early intervention.

To further investigate the “other side of the bell curve” hypothesis, the current study examined the number of low and high scores on a neuropsychological battery: 1) in cognitively unimpaired or impaired older adults, 2) as they relate to biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and 3) as they relate to traditional scores on this battery.

In 68 cognitively unimpaired and 97 cognitively impaired participant, the number of low (i.e., ≤ 16th percentile) and high (i.e., ≥ 75th percentile) scores on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) were calculated, compared between the two groups, and related to biomarkers of AD (i.e., amyloid deposition, hippocampal volumes, ε4 alleles of Apolipoprotein E (APOE)) and RBANS Total score.

In this cognitively diverse sample, low and high scores were common, with approximately 75% having at least one low score and 86% having at least one high score. Unimpaired participants had significantly more high scores and fewer low scores than their impaired counterparts. The number of low scores was significantly related to more amyloid deposition, smaller hippocampal volume, and having one or more copies of the ε4 allele of APOE. The number of high scores was similarly related with these biomarkers. Low/high scores were comparable to traditional scores on the RBANS in identifying cognitively impaired participants.

Support for the “other side of the bell curve” hypothesis was equivocal in these analyses, with both sides of the bell curve appearing to provide relevant information in a cognitively diverse sample.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is the first cortical region affected by tau pathology in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but its functions remain unclear. The EC is thought to support memory binding, which can be tested using the Visual Short-Term Memory Binding Test (VSTMBT). We aimed to test whether VSTMBT performance can identify individuals with preclinical AD before noticeable episodic memory impairment and whether these performances are related to amyloid (Aβ) pathology and/or EC tau burden.

Ninety-four participants underwent the VSTMBT (including a shape-only condition (SOC) and a shape-color binding condition (SCBC)), standard neuropsychological assessment including the Preclinical Alzheimer Cognitive Composite (PACC5), an Aβ status examination, a 3D-T1 MRI and a [18F]-MK-6240 tau-PET scan. Participants were classified as follows: 54 Aβ-negative cognitively normal (Aβ − CN), 22 Aβ-positive CN (Aβ + CN, preclinical AD), and 18 Aβ + individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment (Aβ + MCI, prodromal AD).

Aβ + CN individuals performed worse than Aβ-CN participants in the SCBC while the SOC only distinguished Aβ − CN from MCI participants. The SCBC performance was predicted by tau burden in the EC after adjusting for Aβ, white matter hypointensities, inferior temporal cortex (ITC) tau burden, age, sex, and education. The SCBC was more sensitive than the PACC5 in identifying CN individuals with a positive tau-PET scan.

Impaired visual short-term memory binding performance was evident from the preclinical stage of sporadic AD and related to tau pathology in the EC, suggesting that SCBC performance could detect early tau pathology in the EC among CN individuals.

The Stages of Objective Memory Impairment (SOMI) system, based on the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT), is a potential marker of subtle cognitive impairment in cognitively normal persons defined by a Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) = 0. We investigated SOMI’s ability to predict incident cognitive impairment (CDR >0) in combination with demographic features and neuroimaging biomarkers.

Cognitively unimpaired participants (CDR = 0) from the Harvard Aging Brain Study had baseline FCSRT scores, MRI, FDG-PET, and PiB-PET as well as follow-up CDRs for 5 years. Cox proportional hazards models with correction for multiple testing assessed the predictive validity of SOMI and neuroimaging biomarkers for progression (CDR >0). Comprehensive sensitivity analyses examined alternative outcomes and stricter screening criteria.

Participants (N = 231) were 73.7 years (SD = 6.0), 60.2% were female, 29.0% were APOE4 positive, and 54 (23.4%) progressed to CDR >0. At baseline, 67% were SOMI-0, 22% were SOMI-1, 4% were SOMI-2, and 7% were SOMI-3/4. After multiple testing correction, hazard ratios (HRs) using SOMI-0 as reference were: SOMI-1 = 2.06 (CI: 1.09 – 3.88), SOMI-2 = 2.85 (CI: 1.08 – 7.54), and SOMI-3/4 = 3.73 (CI: 1.58 – 8.79, p = 0.016). SOMI-3/4 remained significant across most biomarker models. Entorhinal thickness emerged as the most robust biomarker predictor (HR = 0.57 – 0.65, p ≤ 0.015). Sensitivity analyses confirmed robustness across alternative outcomes and stricter screening criteria.

SOMI stages predict progression to incident cognitive impairment with SOMI-3/4 maintaining significance after rigorous multiple testing correction. Entorhinal thickness provides the strongest biomarker enhancement to prediction models. SOMI demonstrates substantial incremental predictive value beyond standard demographic and biomarker predictors.

Cognitive intra-individual variability (IIV) is a neuropsychological marker reflecting divergent performance across cognitive domains. In this brief communication, we examined whether clinical severity, apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 carriers, and higher polygenic risk were associated with higher cognitive IIV, and whether higher polygenic risk and cognitive IIV synergistically influence clinical severity.

This large study involved up to 24,248 participants (mean age = 72) from the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) and multiple regression controlling for age, sex, and education was used to analyze the data.

We found that disease severity (B = 0.055, SE = 0.001, P < 0.001), APOE ε4 carriers (B = 0.02, SE = 0.003, P < 0.001), and higher polygenic risk (B = 0.02, SE = 0.004, P < 0.001) were associated with higher cognitive IIV. Polygenic risk and cognitive IIV also interacted to influence clinical severity, beyond APOE ε4 (B = 0.11, SE = 0.05, P = 0.02), such that individuals with high polygenic risk and cognitive IIV had the greatest clinical severity.

Heightened polygenic risk and increased cross-domain cognitive variation are implicated in dementia and may impact clinical decline in tandem.

To assess for differences in low score frequency on cognitive testing amongst older adults with and without a self-reported history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) dataset.

The sample included adults aged 65 or older who completed the Uniform Data Set 3.0 neuropsychological test battery (N = 7,363) and was divided by individuals with and without a history of TBI, as well as cognitive status as measured by the CDR. We compared TBI- and TBI + groups by the prevalence of low scores obtained across testing. Three scores falling at or below the 2nd percentile or four scores at or below the 5th percentile were criteria for an atypical number of low scores. Nonparametric tests assessed associations among low score prevalence and demographics, symptoms of depression, and TBI history.

Among cognitively normal participants (CDR = 0), older age, male sex and greater levels of depression were associated with low score frequency; among participants with mild cognitive impairment (CDR = 0.5-1), greater levels of depression, shorter duration of time since most recent TBI, and no prior history of TBI were associated with low score frequency.

Participants with and without a history of TBI largely produced low scores on cognitive testing at similar frequencies. Cognitive status, sex, education, depression, and TBI recency showed variable associations with the number of low scores within subsamples. Future research that includes more comprehensive TBI history is indicated to characterize factors that may modify the association between low scores and TBI history.

Significant gaps remain in our knowledge of cognitive aging in Hispanic adults, the largest and fastest-growing minority group in the United States (U.S.). Episodic autobiographical memory (EAM), which has well documented age-related differences, has not been directly examined in older U.S. Hispanic adults – a population that is commonly bilingual. This study aimed to examine the effects of Spanish-English bilingualism and aging on EAM among Hispanic adults.

In the present study 100 young and middle-aged/older Hispanic adults (50 English–Spanish bilingual Hispanic participants and 50 monolingual English-speaking Hispanic participants) narrated EAMs in a structured interview. We assessed these narratives for episodic and non-episodic details using an established scoring protocol.

We replicated the commonly observed age-related decrease in episodic detail generation among Hispanic participants, with non-episodic detail not significantly differing between young and older Hispanic participants. Among young Hispanic participants, bilingualism was associated with higher episodic, but not non-episodic, detail generation. This bilingualism advantage for episodic detail, however, was not evident among older Hispanic participants.

These results underscore the complex interplay between bilingualism and age in autobiographical memory for events among Hispanic adults. Our study highlights the importance of including diverse racial/ethnic and linguistic samples in cognitive aging research to better understand how bilingualism and cultural factors influence memory across the lifespan.

This study examined three neurocognitive patterns or “clinical pearls” historically viewed as evidence for executive dysfunction in Parkinson disease (PD): 1) letter < category fluency; 2) word list < story delayed recall; 3) word list delayed recall < recognition. The association between intraindividual magnitudes of each neuropsychological pattern and individual performance on traditional executive function tests was examined.

A clinical sample of 772 individuals with PD underwent neuropsychological testing including tests of verbal fluency, word list/story recall, recognition memory, and executive function. Raw scores were demographically normed (Heaton) and converted to z-scores for group-level analyses.

Letter fluency performance was worse than category fluency (d = −0.12), with 28% of participants showing a discrepancy of ≥ −1.0 SD. Delayed recall of a list was markedly poorer than story recall (d = −0.86), with 52% of the sample exhibiting ≥ −1.0 SD deficits. Lastly, delayed free recall was worse than recognition memory (d = −0.25), with 24% showing a discrepancy of ≥ −1.0 SD. These patterns did not consistently correlate with executive function scores. The word list < story recall pattern was more common in earlier than later PD stages and durations.

Among the three pearls, the most pronounced was stronger memory performance on story recall than word lists, observed in more than half the sample. Only ¼ the participants exhibited all three neurocognitive patterns simultaneously. The variability in patterns across individuals highlights the heterogeneity of cognitive impairment in PD and suggests that intra-individual comparisons may offer a more nuanced insight into cognitive functioning.

Impairments in emotion recognition, a crucial component of social cognition, have been previously demonstrated in patients with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bv-FTD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, to date, it is unclear whether patients with early-stage vascular dementia (VaD) display deficient emotion recognition. We investigated profiles of impairments in emotion recognition and non-social cognitive functions, comparing VaD patients to bv-FTD and AD patients, and healthy control participants (HC).

Eighty-one memory clinic patients with early-stage VaD (n = 30), bv-FTD (n = 21) and AD (n = 30), and 40 HCs were included and performed Ekman 60 Faces Test (EFT; emotion recognition), Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT; memory - encoding and retrieval) and Trailmaking Test (TMT A, TMT B, TMT B/A; information processing speed, executive functions). Differences between groups were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA), using age, education and sex adjusted norm Z scores.

All patient groups performed significantly worse than HCs on EFT (p < .001). Mean performance of VaD patients was in between bv-FTD and AD (only bv-FTD < AD, p < .01). All patient groups were also impaired on AVLT encoding, TMT-B and TMT B/A. Social and non-social neurocognitive functions differed between groups, with specific impairments in processing speed in VaD, emotion recognition in bv-FTD and memory retrieval in AD, and memory encoding and cognitive control impaired in all three groups.

We found significantly different profiles in VaD, bv-FTD and AD. Assessing emotion recognition has additive value in the distinction between patient groups, allowing for more timely and accurate diagnosis in clinical practice.

Because of the complexity of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) clinical presentations across bio-psycho-social domains of functioning, data-reduction approaches, such as latent profile analysis (LPA), can be useful for studying profiles rather than individual symptoms. Previous LPA research has resulted in more precise characterization and understanding of patients, better clarity regarding the probability and rate of disease progression, and an empirical approach to identifying those who might benefit most from early intervention. Whereas previous LPA research has revealed useful cognitive, neuropsychiatric, or functional subtypes of patients with AD, no study has identified patient profiles that span the domains of health and functioning and that also include motor and sensory functioning.

LPA was conducted with data from the Advancing Reliable Measurement in Alzheimer’s Disease and cognitive Aging study. Participants were 209 older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) or mild dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (DAT). LPA indicator variables were from the NIH Toolbox® and included cognitive, emotional, social, motor, and sensory domains of functioning.

The data were best modeled with a 4-profile solution. The latent profiles were most differentiated by indices of social and emotional functioning and least differentiated by motor and sensory function.

These multi-domain patient profiles support and extend previous findings on single-domain profiles and highlight the importance of social and emotional factors for understanding patient experiences of aMCI/DAT. Future research should investigate these profiles further to better understand risk and resilience factors, the stability of these profiles over time, and responses to intervention.

The goal of the current study was to study the contribution of source memory, more specifically, a source memory task, on the memory performance measured with a novel virtual reality (VR)-based neuropsychological assessment test, i.e., the Suite Test.

The sample included 676 subjects (49.7% female), aged from 12 to 85 years. The Suite test comprises a 360-degree VR environment designed as a furniture shop. Participants must group specific sets of furniture items (ordered by different families of customers) by clicking on the furniture to be packed, following instructions from a voice-over. All participants were administered the full version of the test, which comprises, among others, an immediate recall task, a source memory task, a short-term delayed recall task, a long-term delayed recall task, and a recognition trial.

Performance on the VR source memory task was associated with recall across age groups, with a stronger contribution in older adults, often enhancing long-term recall. In contrast, younger individuals relied more on immediate and short-term delayed recall, with weaker relationships between source memory and the other types, suggesting that it plays a more secondary role in younger participants.

The Suite Test VR-based test effectively explores source memory contributions across the lifespan. By immersing participants in a dynamic VR environment, it reveals how source memory relates to other memory types, showing age-related differences and offering valuable insights about cognitive changes, as well as about future research implications in the area of memory assessment.