This chapter focuses on learner translanguaging, analysing its characteristics, the factors that influence these characteristics, key functions of learner translanguaging and suggestions for facilitating learner translanguaging in class. Six characteristics of learner translanguaging are identified; it is agentive, purposeful, spontaneous and emergent, situated and contextual, identity-reflective and multimodal. Its manifestation is dependent on key influencing factors, including the classroom environment, aspects of learner identity, peer interaction and group dynamics, the type of activity involved, learner language proficiency and repertoire, and also the emotional and cognitive load experienced by learners at different points in the learning process. The chapter then introduces a project conducted by a Bolivian teacher to facilitate learner translanguaging, which then helps us, alongside other examples from research, to understand key functions of learner translanguaging, including when interacting with peers, interacting with the teacher and interacting with oneself. The chapter concludes by presenting a framework for facilitating learner translanguaging involving twelve recommendations.

In this second part of the book, we will consider some modal extensions of the base relevant logics. For this, we will extend the language with modal operators. A relevant modal logic adds additional axioms and rules governing the new modal operators to the base relevant logic. In this chapter, we will cover the axiomatics of relevant modal logics and some matrix techniques for them. In the next chapter (Chapter 7), we will look at their frame theory.

This chapter concerns itself with the architectural context of Byzantine worship. Through selected examples from Late Antiquity and Byzantium, it traces the development of ecclesiastical architecture, its symbolism, and their theological significance. Starting with the church building in early Christian commentaries of Maximos the Confessor and Germanos of Constantinople, it follows Byzantine architectural developments through the transitional and middle Byzantine periods up to the final centuries before the fall of Constantinople.

Race had a key role in the construction of madness and literary value and thus in periodical production in asylums, especially in the United States. Contributing to a periodical enabled educated white patients not only to express their creativity, enlightenment, and agency, but to reclaim their citizenship, at least figuratively. The launch of the Meteor in 1872 by a former plantation owner and patient at the Alabama Insane Hospital, Joseph Alexander Goree, was an act of rebellion against the irony of losing his own liberty and rights once he was certified as insane. The periodical was part of a larger campaign of literary activity through which he demonstrated his erudition, high taste, and reason. Recasting himself as an ally and collaborator to the superintendent, Goree found empowerment in maintaining the high literary quality of his publication and keeping madness out of it. Yet, the Meteor was far from a homogeneous polished account of the asylum: during its irregular run, it embodied different viewpoints as well as Goree’s declining enthusiasm and growing discontent, as he realised that his project of self-empowerment would fail to earn him his freedom and rights.

This chapter explores how translanguaging can become an integral part of our assessment practices, even in monolingual ELT contexts. Key terminology in assessment is explained simply and clearly. Assessment for learning (formative assessment) activities explored include assessing conceptual understanding, assessing through translation, assessing prior knowledge, assessing reading and listening comprehension, assessing learner performance and assessing literacy development. The current and potential role of translanguaging in assessment of learning (summative assessment) are also discussed, including ways that community and home languages can help improve the assessment validity and accuracy, the potential role of mediation and translation and ways that stress can be better managed through multilingual practices. Preparation for, administration of, and pastoral support around high-stakes summative assessment are also explored, as are continuous assessment activities, including project work and journalling. The chapter concludes with discussion of more ambitious visions of multilingual language assessment currently being explored around the world.

Eschatology is the study of the Last Days, including the idea that at the Last Judgement, God will judge each human being who has ever lived. Starting with the biblical origins of eschatological thought, I explore several new developments in discourses from the Byzantine Christian tradition, focusing on theological and liturgical responses to concerns about the end of time and the salvation of believers. The doctrines of divinisation, universal salvation, millennialism and purgatory were developed in different ways in East and West. I contrast these theological responses with the popular eschatological visions found in apocalypses and saints’ Lives.

This chapter concludes the book by exploring options and opportunities for readers to implement, investigate and evaluate the ideas and suggestions for translanguaging in ELT presented in this book. It identifies an important difference between research-in-practice and research-on-practice and discusses how, predominantly through a research-in-practice approach, teachers can conduct both informal and formal inquiry into the appropriacy and effectiveness of approaches, methods and activities in their own classroom. It explores a number of feasible ideas for busy teachers, including journalling, self-observation, learner focus groups, buddy observations, learner reflective writing, exploratory practice, action research and matched pairs research. The chapter concludes with recommendations for possible first steps for teachers who are new to translanguaging pedagogy.

The Virgin Mary was a multifaceted figure in Byzantine theology. She played a central role in the incarnation of Christ since she provided him with his human nature. Her virginity, before, during, and after the birth bore witness to his ongoing divinity. Although Mariological doctrine did not receive systematic treatment in the Byzantine theological tradition, it was elaborated in liturgical texts. The Theotokos was described with the help of metaphorical and typological language, which associated her symbolically with creation, humanity, and a transfigured paradise, that is, spaces that were potentially receptive to God’s presence. As recent scholarship has shown, however, Byzantine Christians also encountered Mary as a female human person. Her maternal qualities, which came to be celebrated especially during and after the period of Iconoclasm (ca. 730–843), included tenderness, mercy, and sorrow – as displayed at the foot of the cross during Christ’s crucifixion. Historical accounts and miracle stories provide evidence of individual Christians’ visions of the Virgin Mary at shrines and churches in Constantinople. At both symbolic and personal levels, Mary, the Theotokos, remained accessible to Christians while representing the ideal model of the deified human person.

This chapter explores the nature and role of texts in translanguaging classrooms, both written and audiovisual texts. It acknowledges current norms of monolingual texts in ELT, exploring how we can make our interaction with and understanding of such texts more multilingual. Translanguaging with written texts is explored in detail, including through how a translanguaging teacher in China uses a mainly monolingual textbook for translingual learning in receptive skills lessons. This leads to exemplified analysis of different stages in such lessons, including preparing learners for reading, building lexis with written text, strengthening comprehension of texts and consolidating learning as we move from receptive to productive skills. Genre-based translanguaging, as an example of integrated skills work, is discussed, as is translanguaging in extensive reading for pleasure. Translanguaging with audio and video texts and the use of multimodal skills, particularly when watching, are both explored, compared and contrasted with written text usage. The chapter also investigates how both phonological awareness and initial literacy can be developed with the support of translanguaging.