This chapter summarises the principal results of Greenberg’s classic 1963 paper (Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In Joseph H. Greenberg (ed.), Universals of Language, 58–90. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press) and subsequent work in language typology developing Greenberg’s ideas by Lehmann, Vennemann, Hawkins and Dryer, concluding with a section on X’-theory and the Head Parameter.

In this chapter we first review the parameters discussed in the preceding chapters and try to show systematically which values each one has in a range of familiar Germanic, Romance and other languages. This leads to a discussion of the Parametric Comparison Method (PCM). Finally, we consider some of the theoretical issues concerning the nature of parameters and parametric variation and conjecture a new theoretical characterisation of parameters.

Following the text and the Timeline, the Guide to Further Information provides a brief essay for each chapter suggesting publications in English for readers interested in learning more. The essays also discuss major figures in art, literature, architecture, and music pertinent to each chapter, as well as places to see and things to do for visitors to Spain, including museums and archaeological sites.

Portugal, Castile, and Catalonia completed separate reconquests of Muslim territory. In 1469, Princess Isabel of Castile married her cousin, Prince Fernando of Aragón. After inheriting their respective thrones, they fought a war establishing separate areas of the world for Portugal and Castile to explore. In 1492, they defeated the last Muslim king of Granada and allowed Christopher Columbus to seek a westward route to Asia for Castile, avoiding the Portuguese route eastward. Instead of Asia, he happened upon the Americas, which had been unknown to European cosmography. That same year, the monarchs expelled Jewish subjects who refused to convert to Christianity, two centuries after England and France had done so. Isabel and Fernando established a religious inquisition to enforce Christian orthodoxy on the population as a whole, including new converts. In another decision with far-reaching consequences, they arranged marriages for their children with Portugal, France, England, and the Habsburgs of Central Europe. The unplanned consequence of the Habsburg alliance, together with a series of premature deaths, left their grandson, Charles of Ghent, heir to a large collection of territories in Europe, as well as all the lands claimed for Castile in the Americas.

This Chapter discusses ergativity and various kinds of split ergativity, as well as the apparent lack of SVO ergative languages. An analysis of ergativity in terms of inherent Case is proposed, following Sheehan (2017).

Franco prepared the son of the Bourbon pretender to succeed him and officially restored the monarchy in 1969. After Franco died, King Juan Carlos I quietly marshaled support to transform Spain into a true democracy, appointing as prime minister Adolfo Suárez, the former head of Spain’s radio and television networks, a man trusted by the right. While Suárez persuaded the Francoist Cortes to vote itself out of existence, Juan Carlos persuaded his colleagues in the military to allow change to happen. Within two years after Franco’s death, Spain emerged as a full-fledged democracy. Weathering an attempted right-wing coup, terrorism from Basque separatists, and the usual challenges of a modern democracy, Spain joined NATO in 1982 and was admitted to the European Union in 1986. Elected governments have alternated between moderate left and moderate right, and with the new millennium, Spaniards began to deal with the wounds of the past. Juan Carlos abdicated in 2014, and his son ascended the throne as Felipe VI, celebrating the tenth anniversary of his reign in 2024. Meanwhile, the Spanish economy has continued to enjoy impressive growth, fueled by tourism, immigration, and industries such as shipbuilding and automobile construction.

This chapter delves into the concept of ‘Rights of Nature’ (RoN) through a semiotic lens; in particular, the ethnological semiology of Jean Baudrillard has significantly influenced this contribution. RoN challenges conventional anthropocentric legal paradigms by integrating Indigenous cosmovisions in Western jurisprudence. By examining legislative examples such as New Zealand’s Te Awa Tupua Act and Australia’s Yarra River Protection Act, this chapter assesses whether these recognitions faithfully reflect Indigenous viewpoints or merely adapt nature into pre-existing Western ontological (legal) philosophies.

RoN frequently intersects with Indigenous cosmovisions, suggesting a profound, metaphysical significance beyond Western legal constructs. This discussion illuminates the evolving character of RoN and its interplay with legal pluralism. The incorporation of RoN into Western legal systems unveils a dynamic where Indigenous knowledge is recognised but simultaneously streamlined to conform to established legal structures.

The chapter further contemplates the possibility that RoN may simply codify Indigenous rights without capturing the full depth of Indigenous perspectives. Ultimately, RoN signifies an endeavour to broaden the legal recognition of nature and its purported intrinsic values, albeit at the risk of misrepresenting Indigenous knowledge as mere extensions of Western legal ontology. In doing so, RoN adorns itself with the Indigenous symbol and ritual to advance environmental politics.