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Before the latter half of the 2nd millennium BCE, smelted iron was virtually unknown in the Near East. Yet by the turn of the millennium iron had already begun to displace copper alloys across the region. This Element will explore the extent to which this phenomenon may have arisen as a consequence of technological developments within preceding traditions for the extraction of copper from its ores. It presents a new approach incorporating a reappraisal of current knowledge with a series of integrated experiments to reveal the frequency of iron extraction during the copper smelting practices of the Late Bronze Age Near East. Armed with these insights the author seeks to address how iron metallurgy may have developed from existing extractive traditions and the implications this has for our wider understanding of technological change within past cultures.
This Element explores transformations of translator education in the context of market forces and digital advancements. It firstly examines complex interactions among the translation industry's trends, notably the increasing role of AI in performing translation tasks that humans traditionally did, evolving market demands and specialised needs of the workplace. Based on this, this Element evaluates how university curricula reflect these transformations, including the pedagogical approaches in translator education that integrate university standards with professional competence. The crux of the discussion centres on the interplay between university education and graduates' employment readiness in changing markets. Finally, after synthesising existing translation competence models, the Element culminates with a revised framework for translation competence. This framework moves beyond a focus on skills transfer or textual negotiation to encompass the diverse competencies required of future translators across various professional contexts, ensuring that translator education remains impactful amid ongoing technological and market changes.
Elizabeth Hitchener (1783–1821) is best known to literary history for a brief but intense friendship with Percy Bysshe Shelley, during which he declared her 'the sister of my soul'. When, in 1812, the friendship fell apart, Shelley turned on her. She was, he said, 'an ugly, hermaphroditical beast of a woman'. He labelled her 'The Brown Demon'. This Element is the first biographical and critical study of a schoolmistress, letter-writer, and poet, whose achievements transcend Shelley's denigrating characterisation. Drawing on fresh archival research, it uncovers a wealth of new information about Hitchener's life and shows how she benefitted from and engaged with late-eighteenth century traditions of radical and proto-feminist thought. It offers both a revisionary account of Hitchener's correspondence with Shelley-based on newly edited manuscripts-and her achievements as a poet, attending in particular to the generic and argumentative complexity of her topographical poem The Weald of Sussex (1822).
Language is integral to human doing, being, becoming and belonging, and its acquisition is naturally distributed in and across activity spaces over time. Different learning experiences form 'a dialectical unity', where one brings the others into existence, and the capacities fostered in one inform and transform those in the others. Thus, connected learning across time and space is fundamental to the coherence, relevance, and meaningfulness of language learning, yet is not given sufficient attention in second language education. Connected learning is particularly relevant in the GenAI era where learner-driven lifelong and lifewide learning is much emphasized. This Element hence conceptualizes the framework of connected language learning with technology, and discusses how the framework could be operationalized and implemented in teaching and learning. It further foregrounds four concepts in this learning framework – agential literacy, interest development, self-regulation support, and identity intervention – and charts out an agenda for research.
An investigation into the metaphysics of the logical properties. Textbooks define logical truth and logical consequence in terms of models. But what are models, and why is invoking them a good way to define these properties? The answers take us through questions about the bearers of logical truth, the distinction between logical and non-logical expressions, and, ultimately, to an account of what logic is.
Why do self-described gender egalitarians support the state's draconian birth restriction? Following China's universal relaxation of its one-child policy in 2016, this Element excavates an under-theorized and distinctly political dimension of the gendered work-family conflict: the incompatibility of rights. I demonstrate that young urban Chinese women have experienced the expansion of their civil right to mother-through birth quota relaxation-as intensifying labor market gender discriminations and undermining their civil right to equal employment. To cope, these women turned to various individualistic strategies of rights-trading, such as promising to limit childbearing when seeking to secure employment. In this process, young Chinese women have further come to perceive employment and motherhood as two incompatible moral claims of entitlement. This Element highlights how women's quotidian work-family encounters present a fruitful yet underexplored site for understanding their political ideations and citizenship struggles. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
This Element examines the tombstone for Andrew of Perugia (d. 1332?), the sole surviving object from the 14C Franciscan mission in China. The narrative begins in Zayton, where diverse groups brought to this maritime entrepot old antagonisms and new alliances. The discovery of Andrew's tombstone and that of other Christian monuments over the centuries, demonstrate how various Christian churches interacted with their host society from the eighth through the fourteenth centuries. Relying to the extent possible on words of the protagonists, this Element scrutinizes the Nestorian cross-and-lotus motif and questions prevailing interpretations about this quintessential Nestorian iconography and its presence on a Franciscan tombstone: the inter-religious borrowing of art and symbolism, the mode through which ideas and traditions were transmitted, the function and purpose of adaptation, and the plausible contribution of local artisans to the creation of the earliest Christian art in China.
This work explores the development and applicability of core theories in cultural psychology, focusing on Brazil and Japan. It analyses systems of thought (holistic vs. analytic cognition), emotional frameworks (ideal affect, happiness), cultural logics (dignity, face, honour), relational mobility, monumentalism/flexibility, tightness/looseness, individualism/collectivism, and self-construal (independent/interdependent). Brazil and Japan display pronounced contrasts in certain domains, yet unexpected parallels in others. This work stresses the necessity of diversifying psychological research to encompass non-US or Western European perspectives, fostering a more globally representative understanding of human behaviour.
Does the 'Muslim World' signify a geopolitical bloc, a civilizational unit, or a theological ideal? This Element interrogates the concept of the Muslim World as a persistent yet under-theorized category in International Relations (IR). Although widely invoked in policy discourse, academic literature, and public debate, the term often functions as a geopolitical shorthand that essentializes Muslim-majority societies and obscures their internal diversity. Rather than accepting or rejecting the term outright, this Element offers a critical reconstruction. Drawing on constructivist IR theory, postcolonial studies, and Islamic intellectual traditions, we reconceptualize the Muslim World as a transnational public sphere shaped by shared debates, symbols, institutions, and histories that generate varying degrees of referential coherence across societies. By treating the Muslim World as historically contingent, internally plural, and relational rather than fixed or monolithic, this Element advances the agenda of Global IR.
Within French subsidised performing arts institutions, productions involving non-professional contributors have been gaining traction over the last decade. The trend is spearheaded both by artists, seeking to increase their interactions with society, and by public authorities, preoccupied with people-participation. The recent acceleration of this trend notwithstanding, participatory productions have long been a peripheral phenomenon in French institutions, keen to differentiate their work from socio-cultural approaches. This Element investigates the current rise in participatory creation, examining the motivations underpinning it and charting the artistic processes and forms it produces. The aim is to explore the realities of the presumed democratic reinforcement attached to participation, placing particular emphasis on the nature and scope of the democratising modes in play both on and off stage, and discussing how they interact with the prevailing conventions and value systems of French public theatre.
Consciousness is often treated as unitary phenomenon. We challenge this and propose a framework that parses it into two functionally distinct representational media. Reviewing dominant theories, as well as studies of perceptual failures, neural activity, visual search and attention – we argue that phenomenal experience arises early as a detailed, analogue, and relatively generic representation of the physical world. Awareness, a later and more idiosyncratic representation of the world, results from enriching phenomenal experience via relevance-filtered semantic knowledge. This Multi-Representational Media (MRM) account unifies perception, memory, and cognition, reconciles rich and sparse consciousness views, and reframes concepts in unconscious cognition research.
This Element seeks to unpack the varied modalities of democratic erosion in Latin America by proposing a novel analytical framework that breaks down backsliding episodes into their constituent parts: 1) the actors that promote autocratization and those that resist it, 2) the strategies that autocratizers and oppositions employ, 3) the arenas of contention in which they struggle over democratic norms and institutions, and 4) the objectives that these different actors pursue in the promotion of or resistance to democratic erosion. We apply this framework to five contemporary cases that reflect a new, diversified wave of democratic erosion, including El Salvador, Mexico, Peru, Guatemala, and Honduras. Through comparative analysis, we derive preliminary insights on the kinds of strategies pursued by different constellations of autocratizers and opposition actors, in hopes of stimulating future avenues of research and contributing to scholar and practitioner efforts to reverse alarming autocratic trends in the region.
This Element provides a broad overview of autism spectrum disorder from early childhood through adolescence. The Element reviews high-impact areas of research relevant to young children, including the shifting diagnostic conceptualizations of autism, current best practices related to screening and diagnosis, our understanding of factors that increase the likelihood of receiving an autism diagnosis, the overlap between autism and other co-occurring conditions, and related contemporary approaches to supports and interventions for young children. The discussion of these topics addresses measurement of outcomes, reproducibility, and methodological rigor. By focusing on these methodological gaps and progress, future directions for research in each of these areas is highlighted.
This Element explores the evolutionary role of small groups as key actors in shaping human adaptability, resilience, and societal development. Drawing on cultural evolutionary theory and interdisciplinary scholarship, it illuminates the world-making and transformative capacities of small groups as primary agents of cooperative communication, cultural innovation and transmission. Through historical and contemporary case studies from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, it examines how small groups can function both as catalysts of moral imagination, cooperation, and democratic renewal, and as drivers of destructive and disintegrative ideologies. The study also revisits the relevance of evolutionary insights for addressing the major crises of the twenty-first century. By critically engaging with foundational thinkers and ongoing debates on democratic and institutional innovation, this Element offers insights for scholars, policymakers, and civic actors committed to empowering communities and countering authoritarian regression.
Argues that hegemonic Western cultural and military strategies have moved away from 'saving' women to 'empowering' girls, and traces the rise to dominance of the figure of the agential girl, analyzing how she has been incorporated into decision-making, securitizing, and policing operations as both a surveillance tool and a social justice goal.
This Element is about language, water and power. It challenges the terracentric bias of much scholarship in language studies, suggesting instead that oceans and rivers should be central in investigations of language, history, culture, society and politics. Working through different engagements with water – swimming, surfing, sailing and diving – this Element explores how thinking in and with water can transform our understandings of justice, power and language. By taking water seriously as both a social and material category, hydrosocial perspectives draw attention to the ways modern water and language are controlled, restricted, standardized and contained. A hydrocolonial lens focuses on the centrality of water in colonial regimes, the oceanic origins of creoles and the need to decolonize control and conceptions of water. For critical hydrosocial language studies language is entangled in an inequitable watery world, and language study from below is a form of spiritual, material and embodied engagement.
Language documentation of the American Sign Language (ASL) communities is essential to preserve and share our language use and interaction, something we cherish. Yet there is no conventionalized written system that can be used, instead we've been using video. Currently these videos are mostly not accessible in a way we can search the contents for language expressions. The ASL Signbank, an empirical-based resource-driven database, labels ASL use in transcripts time-aligned to ASL videos along with a set of annotation conventions to make the data machine-readable. ASL Signbank is a cloud-based annotation tool built over twenty years from the models of extant signbanks and their organizing principles. To create a database requires many choices and ongoing labor which is detailed in this Element - from what ASL Signbank is to why it exists and how to use it. This Element is also a reflection on these choices.