Visual impairment (VI) affects around 2.2 billion people globally (World Health Organization, 2019). VI language learners need strong vocabulary knowledge as much as sighted (SI) learners, yet little is known about how different instruction types impact their vocabulary development. In this study, 16 VI and 16 SI learners of English were taught 60 vocabulary items counterbalanced through two aural input methods: codeswitching (CS), giving first language (L1) explanations, and aural input manipulation (AIM) with CS (AIMCS), where increased volume emphasized words alongside CS explanations. Pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests indicated that AIMCS led to better short-term vocabulary retention for both groups, with no significant differences longer term. VI learners benefited more overall, and learners with lower initial vocabulary showed the greatest gains. Listening proficiency moderated the effects, with AIMCS offering greater short-term benefits for learners with higher listening proficiency. The study suggests AIMCS enhances short-term vocabulary learning, particularly for VI learners, but listening proficiency is critical.

How much information do we need when estimating multilingual children’s relative language exposure? In the current study, we compared three different estimates at varying levels of detail: (i) global estimates per language, (ii) the average of per-speaker estimates, weighted for the time the child spends with each speaker, and (iii) estimates obtained using the Experience Sampling Method, which consisted of five surveys a day across 7 days. Data were collected from 102 multilingual children (ages 3–9 years) in the Netherlands. We found that the three exposure estimates were highly correlated and that there were only small differences in how well they correlated with children’s vocabulary knowledge. Discrepancies between estimates were largely unrelated to participant characteristics such as children’s age or the number of languages spoken at home. We conclude that the simplest estimates (i.e. global estimates) may be sufficiently reliable as a measure of multilingual children’s language exposure at home.

This study investigates the impact of socio-economic status (SES) on children’s vocabulary, focusing on the distinction between vocabulary breadth (number of words known) and vocabulary depth (quality of word knowledge). It aims to determine whether SES affects both dimensions equally and whether the relationship between SES and vocabulary depth is mediated by vocabulary breadth. Participants were 219 children schooled in France in fourth and fifth grades who had French as their dominant language. Analyses showed that SES significantly influences vocabulary breadth, as predicted by previous research. Importantly, it also impacts vocabulary depth. Mediation analysis revealed that vocabulary breadth can mediate this effect depending on the task used to measure vocabulary depth.

This study presents the creation and validation of LexEst, a short 5-minute test to assess vocabulary knowledge in Estonian. Our freely accessible test consists of 90 items and is designed for L2 speakers of Estonian. LexEst is modeled after the original Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English. Similarly to other test variants, our test has been adapted to assess vocabulary knowledge at varying proficiency levels. Our findings demonstrate that LexEst provides an objective measure of the Estonian vocabulary of L2 learners, aligning well with subjective language proficiency indicators, such as self-assessed skills. In addition, higher LexEst scores and shorter response times are associated with higher CEFR-level language courses and a greater daily use of Estonian. Higher LexEst scores are also associated with an earlier age of acquisition in Estonian and a higher perceived importance of learning Estonian.

How do sensory experiences shape the words we learn first? Most studies of language have focused on hearing children learning spoken languages, making it challenging to know how sound and language modality might contribute to language learning. This study investigates how perceptual and semantic features influence early vocabulary acquisition in deaf children learning American Sign Language and hearing children learning spoken English. Using vocabulary data from parent-report inventories, we analyzed 214 nouns common to both languages to compare the types of meanings associated with earlier Age of Acquisition. Results revealed that while children in both groups were earlier to acquire words that were more strongly related to the senses, the specific types of sensory meaning varied by language modality. Hearing children learned words with sound-related features earlier than other words, while deaf children learned words with visual and touch-related features earlier. This suggests that the easiest words to learn are words with meanings that children can experience first-hand, which varies based on children’s own sensory access and experience. Studying the diverse ways children acquire language, in this case deaf children, is key to developing language learning theories that reflect all learners.

This longitudinal study investigates the development and interrelation of adolescent learners’ L2 English vocabulary knowledge and extramural English (EE) input. The study examines the longitudinal development of L2 English receptive vocabulary knowledge, EE input and the dynamics between L2 proficiency and EE input. Data were collected at four time points by administering vocabulary tests and questionnaires on EE activities. Generalized additive mixed models and growth curve models indicated significant vocabulary growth, particularly in the early years of secondary school, which slowed down toward the end of the study. EE activities such as gaming, social media and reading positively predicted vocabulary development, while watching television with L1 subtitles had a negative effect. Temporal network analysis revealed reciprocal relationships, suggesting that L2 proficiency influences EE input and vice versa. The findings underscore the importance of EE in L2 vocabulary development and highlight the dynamic interplay between language learning and extramural activities.

Early language development has rarely been studied in hearing children with deaf parents who are exposed to both a spoken and a signed language (bimodal bilinguals). This study presents longitudinal data of early communication and vocabulary development in a group of 31 hearing infants exposed to British Sign Language (BSL) and spoken English, at 6 months, 15 months, 24 months and 7 years, in comparison with monolinguals (exposed to English) and unimodal bilinguals (exposed to two spoken languages). No differences were observed in early communication or vocabulary development between bimodal bilinguals and monolinguals, but greater early communicative skills in infancy were found in bimodal bilinguals compared to unimodal bilinguals. Within the bimodal bilingual group, BSL and English vocabulary sizes were positively related. These data provide a healthy picture of early language acquisition in those learning a spoken and signed language simultaneously from birth.

An increasing number of studies have shown that pretesting L2 word knowledge before a study phase can enhance subsequent learning. However, little is known about pretesting effects in the context of incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition. This study explores the effects of pretesting on L2 vocabulary learning through reading, focusing on the moderating effect of the pretest format. One hundred and forty-three participants were randomly assigned to a nonpretested condition or three pretested conditions (meaning recall, meaning recognition, and form recognition). In the pretested conditions, participants completed a vocabulary pretest, followed by a meaning-focused reading task and three vocabulary posttests. The findings show that the meaning recall and form recognition groups were impacted most by pretesting in terms of learning outcomes and perceptions of the learning intervention. However, the pretesting effect on posttest scores was small and statistically nonsignificant, suggesting a minimal impact of pretesting on incidental learning outcomes.

Although word lists have generated a great deal of attention from researchers, there has been no comprehensive review of the applications of word lists in second language learning and teaching. This article reviews the development, validation, and applications of 50 word list studies that were published and discussed in major international peer-reviewed Applied Linguistics and TESOL journals from 2013 to 2023. It shows that the methodology of word list development and validation has become more sophisticated and word list developers can see many potential applications of their lists in research and pedagogy. However, most applications of recently developed word lists have been restricted to the BNC/COCA lists developed by Paul Nation, and little is known about the degree to which most word lists have been used in pedagogical contexts. Our review indicates several directions for future research on word lists, including exploring the impact of published lists on pedagogy, replicating word list studies for learners in underrepresented contexts, and developing sustainable, low-cost methods of developing word lists to allow teachers and learners to create lists serving their own needs.

Based on the simple view of reading (SVR), we investigated factors associated with reading comprehension in Second Language (L2) minority children learning a highly consistent orthography through a network analysis. Bilingual and monolingual children participated in the research. Consistent with prior findings, reading speed supported reading comprehension for L1 learners, whereas, for L2 learners, correct decoding carried greater weight than reading speed. In monolingual children, vocabulary and morphosyntactic comprehension contributed jointly and independently to reading comprehension success. However, only vocabulary facilitated reading comprehension in bilingual children, with morphosyntactic skills showing no influence. While monolinguals benefitted from a rich vocabulary and good morphosyntactic knowledge for reading speed and accuracy, in bilingual children, only L2 reading speed was affected by linguistic skills.