Extended reality (XR), encompassing virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), has become a crucial tool in Behavioural Data Science. This chapter explores the applications of XR, VR and AR in this field, with a focus on analysing human behaviour and decision-making in immersive environments. The chapter begins with an overview of XR, VR and AR technologies and their potential in Behavioural Data Science. It discusses the advantages of using immersive environments for studying human behaviour, such as the ability to control and manipulate variables, measure behaviour in real time and simulate complex scenarios. It reviews various applications of XR, VR and AR in Behavioural Data Science. The chapter covers how immersive environments aid in studying decision-making, social interaction, learning, training and cognitive processes, with specific examples like using VR for consumer behaviour studies and AR for employee training. The challenges and opportunities of applying XR, VR and AR in Behavioural Data Science are also discussed. This includes the need for advanced data collection and analysis tools, ethical considerations around data privacy and security and potential new applications in fields like healthcare, education and entertainment. The chapter emphasises the significance of XR, VR and AR in understanding human behaviour and decision-making in immersive environments. It calls for ongoing research to further explore the potential applications of these technologies in Behavioural Data Science and to develop new tools and methods for analysing data from immersive environments.

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the historical connections between the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL). We trace the development of this field from its primarily cognitive origins to the social turn in the early 2000s and to the affective turn, with its more recent emphasis on the learner and teacher’s psychology. The latter has led to an increased recognition of the roles of individual learner differences in second and foreign language learning and the investigation of technology on learners’ motivation, emotions and self-regulation of learning both inside and outside of the classroom. The complex interaction between learner-internal and -external factors (including the mediating role of technology) has led to a view of language acquisition as a complex dynamic process, and this is increasingly evident in research on technology-mediated learning. In our synthesis, we classify recent developments into four distinctive, yet interrelated strands: technological developments, theoretical and conceptual developments, pedagogical developments, and methodological developments. In particular, we illustrate these developments with examples of technological and pedagogical innovations used for language learning such as Language MOOCs, augmented and virtual reality, big data, learning analytics and artificial intelligence.

Neuroendoscopy has evolved from its ancient Egyptian origins to a vital tool in modern neurosurgery. Initially, developments stagnated due to prohibitions on human dissection and technological limitations. The late eighteenth century saw advancements with Philipp Bozzini’s “Lichtleiter” and the invention of incandescent bulbs. Significant progress in the twentieth century included the first neuroendoscopy attempts and improvements in fiber optics by Harold Hopkins and Karl Storz. Neuroendoscopy became widely accepted in the 1980s for procedures such as ventriculoscopy and endonasal surgeries, driven by the need for less invasive techniques. Modern applications include spinal endoscopy and endoscopy-assisted surgeries. Innovations such as three-dimensional endoscopy, augmented reality, and remote teaching have expanded its use and accessibility globally, improving surgical outcomes and training. Despite technological challenges, neuroendoscopy continues to advance, offering promising future developments.

The chapter highlights the importance of precision, planning, and rehearsal in neurosurgery due to the brain’s intricate structure. Advances in technology, such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), have revolutionized surgical planning, training, and execution. These technologies offer detailed 3D visualizations and interactive simulations, allowing surgeons to practice and refine their skills in a controlled environment. VR systems enable customized patient-specific models, enhancing pre-operative planning and interdisciplinary collaboration. AR overlays digital information onto the real world, providing real-time guidance during surgeries. The integration of AI, haptic feedback, and robotics further improves precision and outcomes, potentially transforming neurosurgical procedures and training.

Neurosurgery has always been at the forefront of adopting innovative technologies and this may easily be explained by the unique demands imposed on surgeons when operating in the brain and spine. Augmented reality (AR) has emerged as a promising technology in neurosurgery, aiming to link the digital and physical worlds to enhance clinical practice and education. This review explores the evolution of AR in neurosurgery, from a modest optical technology inception to a digitally enhanced plethora of mixed reality media, and how widespread adoption has been hindered by technical limitations. Various approaches to displaying AR as well as requirements for future-proof patient digital models are discussed. Challenges associated with updating models intra-operatively and the need for precise tracking of the physical environment are also reviewed. The chapter concludes with the authors’ vision for overcoming these technical hurdles, which will be essential for realizing the full potential of AR in neurosurgical practice.

This chapter will explore the use of digital technologies to develop psychomotor procedures when learning with our bodies. This includes the use of video, images and annotations to practise technique or strategy in physical education, such as improving a cricket bowling technique, or to review and analyse team performance and gameplay following a match. It could be using video or audio to develop musical instrument technique or to improve public speaking or other acting or speaking skills in drama. It could be used to develop choreography or dance technique, or to practice speaking a new language. Psychomotor procedures are also involved in learning to form letters when writing and acquiring the manual skill of typing.

This chapter begins with a theory-based explanation of psychomotor procedures and how they are incorporated in some of the key models of knowledge such as Bloom’s Taxonomy and Marzano and Kendall’s New Taxonomy. It then considers how you can use digital tools to develop psychomotor procedures in curriculum subjects.

1 Introduction

2 The Reality–Virtuality Continuum

3 From Telepresence to Human Pacman: Early Scholars’ View on Virtual Worlds

4 Consumer Engagement and Consumption Characteristic: Current View on Virtual Worlds

5 How and Who Runs the Virtual Worlds: Suggestions for Further Research

6 Conclusion

1 Introduction

2 Bibliometric Analysis of Immersive Technologies

3 Trends, Challenges and Affordances of Immersive Technologies

 3.1 The Use of Immersive Technologies

 3.2 The Main Challenges of Using Immersive Technologies

4 Future Directions

5 Conclusions

Recognition skills refer to the ability of a practitioner to rapidly size up a situation and know what actions to take. We describe approaches to training recognition skills through the lens of naturalistic decision-making. Specifically, we link the design of training to key theories and constructs, including the recognition-primed decision model, which describes expert decision-making; the data-frame model of sensemaking, which describes how people make sense of a situation and act; and macrocognition, which encompasses complex cognitive activities such as problem solving, coordination, and anticipation. This chapter also describes the components of recognition skills to be trained and defines scenario-based training.

Augmented reality technology enables the creation of training that more closely resembles real-world environments without the cost and complexity of organizing large- scale training exercises in high-stakes domains that require recognition skills (e.g., military operations, emergency medicine). Augmented reality can be used to project virtual objects such as patients, medical equipment, colleagues, and terrain features onto any surface, transforming any space into a simulation center. Augmented reality can also be integrated into an existing simulation center. For example, a virtual patient can be mapped onto a physical manikin so learners can practice assessments skills on the highly tailorable virtual patient, and practice interventions on the physical manikin using the tools they use in their everyday work. This chapter sets the stage by describing how the author drew from their own experiences, reviewed scientific literature, and consulted with skilled instructors to articulate eleven design principles for creating augmented reality training.