Vicente Rocafuerte (1783–1847) was born in Guayaquil, in today’s Ecuador. Educated in Spain and France, he entered politics early, serving first in his native land as a local magistrate. While in Europe (since 1812) he was elected as one of the Spanish American representatives to the Spanish Cortes. In Madrid in 1814 he witnessed the demise of the parliament after the restoration of Ferdinand VII, devoting himself from then on to the service of some of the emerging nations of Spanish America. As an advocate of republicanism, he opposed the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide and served as Mexico’s representative in Great Britain and Europe. Back in Guayaquil in 1833, he opposed the regime of Juan José Flores, becoming president of Ecuador between 1835 and 1839, and serving later as president of the Senate. He died in Lima in 1847, while on a diplomatic mission to Peru. The current selection was written while in Mexico in 1830 and represents one of the earliest Spanish American arguments for religious toleration. Rocafuerte was by no means an atheist but opposed the establishment of an official religion for the emerging states.

Valentín Letelier (1852–1929) was a Chilean educator, philosopher, and jurist who, after an assignment in Prussia in the early 1880s, contributed to the reform of the Chilean educational system, particularly through the creation of the teacher-training institute, the Instituto Pedagógico attached to the University of Chile. A committed positivist and leader of the Radical Party, Letelier was a chaired professor of law who became rector of the University of Chile for two periods beginning in 1906. His principal works include Filosofía de la educación (1892), La evolución de la historia (1900), Génesis del Estado (1917), and Génesis del derecho (1919). As a member of Congress, he joined the opposition to the government of José Manuel Balmaceda, signing the articles of impeachment that led to his arrest and exile in 1891, the year of the Civil War that ended with the victory of the congressional forces. The current selection provides Letelier’s rationale for the opposition to Balmaceda and advances a passionate defense of the role of organized political parties in a democracy, the rule of law, and the meritocratic selection of public officials.

This chapter describes the rapid spread of democracy in the later fifth and earlier fourth centuries BCE. The reader imagines the life cycle of a democratic citizen in Classical Athens, from birth in the deme to political participation in mid-life to arbitration work in old age, with detours into the court system, festivals, the Athenian Funeral Oration, and ostracism. Comparative evidence is introduced from fourth-century BCE Argos. The Athenian monumental building projects of the period of the high empire (Parthenon, Propylaea, Erectheion, etc.) receive their own subsection, with a focus on democratic art. The reader is introduced properly to oligarchic institutions and ideology, which almost managed to reverse democratic gains for good in this period. The chapter ends with a discussion of the stasis or civil strife that broke out between democrats and oligarchs in so many Greek poleis.

This chapter introduces a phonetic system capable of representing the articulations of all types of signs. It represents signs that do not gesturally indicate or depict with categorical phonetic features. The phonetic representations of indicating signs are different because, in addition to the categorical phonetic features that represent their lexical forms, they also contain gradient descriptors that represent the directional gradience in their articulations. These phonetic representations support the proposal that the articulations of indicating signs express their lexical meanings while simultaneously indicating one or more referents. They do not, however, provide evidence of verbal inflections because the phonetic representations contain no inflectional features.

Tokens are disembodied, conceptual entities in the space ahead of the signer. Signers direct indicating signs toward them to refer to nonpresent referents. Tokens are not morphemes and they are not incorporated into the articulations of indicating signs. Although folk wisdom holds that signers need to “establish an index” before directing an indicating sign toward a meaningful spatial location, signers direct indicating pronouns, determiners, numerals, and verbs toward tokens without first “establishing an index.” As a result, it is up to addressees to determine a token’s significance by making use of the preceding or subsequent narrative context. Regardless of who or what an indicating sign is directed toward, categorical phonetic features represent the indicating sign’s lexical form and noncategorical descriptors account for its gradient directional articulation. The directions in these articulations are exactly that – directions. Phonetic descriptions represent these directions but do not represent the indicated entities. This does not constitute a problem for addressees, however, because following the articulation’s directionality leads to the indicated entity.

We now address additive questions involving prime numbers, particularly the problem of expressing an integer as a sum of k primes:

Martina Barros Borgoño (1850–1944) was a pioneering Chilean who advanced women’s rights in significant ways, not least in terms of advocating for suffrage, but also in terms of a critical approach to nineteenth-century thinking on gender distinctions. Born in a socially distinguished milieu, Martina Barros encountered John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women (1869) at a young age and embarked on the translation and commentary of the source by 1872. Barros’ prologue celebrated some aspects of Mill’s work, but bemoaned others. She acknowledged the role of her husband, the liberal physician Augusto Orrego Luco, in the writing of the prologue, but affirmed that the ideas were her own in her autobiography. Both had previously read Mill’s On Liberty (1859), and shared his condemnation of the tyranny of customs, challenging gender traditions and participating actively in publications and intellectual circles. Her views, however, were far from radical. As she stated in her autobiography, “my aim in promoting the independence and culture of women was not to make them rivals of men, but rather their dignified companions.”

Eating disorders can have a profound impact on women during the pre-conception, antenatal and postnatal periods, and this has implications for their care and treatment. This chapter describes the rate, course and risk factors for eating disorders within the context of the perinatal period. It covers what is known from current research and clinical evidence about the effect of the most common eating disorders on pre-conception health, pregnancy and birth outcomes. Drawing on existing clinical guidance and research evidence, it provides an overview of the guidance and recommendations for the assessment, management and treatment of eating disorders from pre-conception through to the postnatal period.

Chapter 1 examines three distinct organic farming movements that arose in Germany in the 1920s as pioneering examples of environmental ideals in practice. Though disparate in their origins and political commitments, all three organic tendencies found considerable common ground with Nazism, in some cases well before the Nazis came to power. Tracing their divergent fates under Hitler’s regime after 1933, the chapter offers a dense historical reconstruction of early environmental ambitions that were sometimes thwarted and sometimes fulfilled through active cooperation with Nazi agencies. A core aspect of the analysis centers on the implicit and explicit influence of racial ideologies within the emerging organic milieu and the opportunities and challenges this opened up under the conditions of Nazi rule. The chapter is built around a comprehensive range of archival sources, many of which have never been examined before, and provides the fullest portrait yet in German or English of the inception of organic farming currents in the context of proto-environmental politics.

This book comes in two parts; the first, consisting of §§1–7, offers an informal axiomatic introduction to the basics of set theory, including a thorough discussion of the axiom of choice and some of its equivalents. The second part, consisting of §§8–14, is written at a somewhat more advanced level, and treats selected topics in transfinite algebra; that is, algebraic themes where the axiom of choice, in one form or another, is useful or even indispensable.

This book focuses on three communicative actions performed by signers. They express lexically and grammatically encoded meanings by articulating signs; they identify entities in their environment with indicating gestures; and they create depictions. Speakers perform the same communicative actions. Signers and speakers accomplish these ends differently, however, because of modality differences. Speakers create an auditory signal by articulating words within the vocal tract. But an auditory linguistic signal cannot indicate so speakers indicate with other parts of their bodies while they speak. Similarly, an auditory signal cannot depict physical placements and movements so speakers create depictions with their arms and hands while they speak. Signers create a visual signal by articulating signs with their arms and hands. But a visual linguistic signal can indicate, which makes it possible to include gestural indicating within the articulations of indicating signs. A visual signal can also depict, which makes it possible for signers to simultaneously express lexical meanings and depict by incorporating depicting gestures into the articulations of depicting verbs. Thus, signers and speakers demonstrate the importance of indicating and depicting while they articulate words/signs because in spite of the modality differences, both indicate and depict while they express lexically encoded meanings.