Current approaches to bilingualism and language learning ability obscure differences between capacity for learning (ability) and dominance (relative proficiency). Bilingual children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have persistent difficulties with complex syntax. The effects of language learning ability and relative proficiency on syntactic development in bilingual acquisition are not well described. This cross-sectional study examined the continuous effects of language ability and relative proficiency on the production of conditionals, subject/object relatives and passives in a sample of 34 five- to nine-year-old Spanish–English bilingual children, 12 of whom were identified as having DLD. Conditionals were significantly easier than other forms, and there were no differences between subject and object relatives. Higher language ability was associated with greater accuracy. Relative proficiency predicted higher English performance for balanced and English-dominant children. Further examination of language ability and relative proficiency in diverse language learners is warranted.

Visual impairment (VI) affects around 2.2 billion people globally (World Health Organization, 2019). VI language learners need strong vocabulary knowledge as much as sighted (SI) learners, yet little is known about how different instruction types impact their vocabulary development. In this study, 16 VI and 16 SI learners of English were taught 60 vocabulary items counterbalanced through two aural input methods: codeswitching (CS), giving first language (L1) explanations, and aural input manipulation (AIM) with CS (AIMCS), where increased volume emphasized words alongside CS explanations. Pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests indicated that AIMCS led to better short-term vocabulary retention for both groups, with no significant differences longer term. VI learners benefited more overall, and learners with lower initial vocabulary showed the greatest gains. Listening proficiency moderated the effects, with AIMCS offering greater short-term benefits for learners with higher listening proficiency. The study suggests AIMCS enhances short-term vocabulary learning, particularly for VI learners, but listening proficiency is critical.

This study investigated the beliefs about additional language learning and use and knowledge of additional languages of 226 multilingual adults with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with Polish L1. The data were collected via an online questionnaire with Likert-type statements. Data were analyzed using mixed models (GLMMs). The findings show that a) individuals with ADHD hold a neutral view of their additional language learning and use experiences; b) the hyperactivity/impulsivity ADHD presentation may positively affect additional language learning; and c) Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or dyslexia has no impact on additional language knowledge in the context of ADHD. The discussion points to the importance of attention in additional language acquisition and the possible compensatory role of ADHD and ASD in the context of dyslexia and language learning.

In this commentary contextualizing the complexities at the nexus of disability and applied linguistics (AL), the authors highlight the paucity of conscientious attention to disabled populations in AL research, explore the intricacies of choosing appropriate terminology to describe disability and disabled people, challenge scholars in the field to reflect on and make explicit their emic or etic positionality vis-à-vis disability in their research, and call researchers to consider researching with, rather than merely about, disabled second language learners. The authors (a) illustrate how a collection of emergent research studies illuminates critical considerations at this underresearched interdisciplinary intersection in the field, and (b) demonstrate, via example studies in other areas of AL, how scholars may choose to center the disabled second-language learning experience rather than relegate it to the far corners of the field.

This study examined whether the contribution of memory systems that play a role in second/additional language (L2/A) learning in adults with neurotypical cognition differs in L2/A learning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants (N = 154) learned an artificial L2/A with morphophonological rules and completed assessments of working, declarative, and procedural memory, as well as an ADHD questionnaire. Our results did not find evidence for differences in L2/A learning between participants diagnosed with ADHD and neurotypical controls. We also did not find that the role of memory differed among learners based on ADHD symptomatology, although we tentatively interpreted an interaction between declarative memory and ADHD symptomatology. We did find evidence for a general role of working memory on learning for one type of morphophonological rule. Overall, the results contribute to a broader understanding of the role of memory systems in L2/A for both neurodivergent and neurotypical language learners.

This study investigates the effectiveness of data-driven learning (DDL) in promoting lexical complexity in Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ argumentative writing, tracks developmental trajectories, and examines learners’ perceptions. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, one class (n = 26) received DDL instruction, and the other (n = 22) received non-DDL instruction. Data were collected using triangulation, including argumentative writing samples from five time points, pre- and post-instruction questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Results showed that learners in the DDL class significantly improved their lexical complexity, while the non-DDL class experienced declines. Across the five time points, nonlinear trajectories were observed in lexical complexity at the individual learner level. Learners reported positive attitudes toward DDL, though some challenges in corpus use remained. These findings provide empirical support for the effectiveness of DDL in promoting lexical complexity development in Chinese EFL learners’ argumentative writing and provide pedagogical implications for corpus-based writing instruction.

This paper calls for a critical re-evaluation of research ethics in applied linguistics (AL) and second language acquisition (SLA) research, particularly concerning the ethical treatment of members of the disabled community. Historically, AL and SLA research has often perpetuated deficit views of disability by focusing on cognitive or affective differences. This paper examines the ethical implications of deficit-based research and tensions between institutional research policies and everyday ethical dilemmas through a disability justice lens. To address these gaps within the field, we propose an emancipatory, rights-based framework that fundamentally reimagines research ethics in AL and SLA by centering respect, representation and reciprocity, informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, and accessibility. Through a focus on disability rights and actionable guidelines, this framework seeks to dismantle systemic barriers in research ethics. It also highlights more equitable and inclusive research practices for disabled people and marginalized groups in AL and SLA research.

Language, emotion, and environment jointly shape how words are processed in real life. This study tested how valence and simulated weather influence bilingual lexical access in virtual reality (VR). Forty Spanish–English bilinguals completed a language-decision task with negative high-arousal and neutral low-arousal words under sunny and rainy conditions. Accuracy was high, with no reliable effects. Reaction times were faster for negative than for neutral words and slower under rain than sun, with no significant language effect. A Weather by Trial Order interaction reflected a practice-related speeding under sun under sunny weather. Valence and weather exerted additive influences, and weather did not modulate language or valence effects. These findings suggest that realistic perceptual load imposes general costs without altering emotional or language-related processing. The study underscores VR’s potential to integrate ecological validity into psycholinguistic paradigms, revealing how intrinsic and extrinsic factors jointly constrain bilingual emotional word processing.

This meta-analysis aimed to determine whether Chinese-English bilingual children with reading difficulties (RD) have significant deficits in morphological awareness (MA), phonological awareness, and word reading, in both their first and second languages (L1 and L2). It also evaluated the influence of RD severity, age, diglossia context, and methodological design on effect sizes. The study included 29 samples (N = 4,516) from 14 studies on children with RD in L1 morphosyllabic Chinese and L2 morphophonemic English. Results showed medium effect sizes for MA (g = −0.722) and PA (g = −0.625), and a large effect size for word reading (g = −2.042) in L1 Chinese. In L2 English, medium to large effect sizes were found for MA (g = −1.083), PA (g = −0.857), and word reading (g = −0.730). Age was the only significant moderator, with larger deficits observed as age increased. These findings align with studies on monolinguals with dyslexia and bilinguals with normal abilities or disabilities, recommending MA tasks in assessments.

Ableist ideologies in schools and among clinicians have impeded equity for students with disabilities. By excluding individuals with diagnoses of learning disability (SLD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) from foreign language (FL) courses, professionals and schools discriminate against students who could benefit from participation. This essay reviews evidence falsifying the notion of an FL learning disability and contradicting the practice of FL substitutions for students with SLDs and ADHD. Evidence demonstrates that most students with SLDs and ADHD can pass FL classes. We maintain that clinicians who make these diagnoses and educators who recommend FL substitutions have no expertise in determining students’ suitability for FL learning. Their automatic assumptions regarding exclusion from rather than inclusion in FL courses are a form of systemic ableism that ignores the intent of disability law and denies agency to these students. We explore how the myth of an FL “learning disability” emerged and why the myth persists despite evidence to the contrary.