This chapter explores the language of dialect writing in the history of English. It surveys the complexities underlying the social and linguistic interactions between (non-)standard varieties with examples of literary dialect and dialect literature written between 1500 and 1900 that are now available in the Salamanca Corpus. It is shown that such evidence provides useful insight into the history of forms that remain underexplored, while it vividly reflects changing ideologies about dialect variation. In this regard, this chapter draws on third-wave sociolinguistic models to illustrate that the combination of frameworks such as enregisterment and indexicality with quantitative analysis of dialect writing can prove beneficial in reconstructing linguistic ideas about dialects and ascertaining shifting indexicalities, while it informs our understanding of the social meaning of dialect variation in the past.

Esperanto was created in the nineteenth century by the Warsaw-based ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof (1859–1917) as a universal second language; he called it Lingvo Internacia, the international language, hoping that it would foster global peace and understanding. Esperanto isn’t the only constructed language, but it is the most popular; it is also the one with the richest cultural legacy and a complex history of dictionaries. Offering a comparative analysis of the dictionary tradition of Esperanto, this conversation compares that tradition to other languages. Ludovik Zamenhof is discussed as the seminal figure in that tradition. It looks at translation as a force changing Esperanto, reflects on the tension between particularism and universalism, and questions Esperanto’s Eurocentrism. It meditates on how the internet has changed Esperanto lexicography. Finally, it explores canonical lexicons such as the Baza Radikaro Oficiala, published under the aegis of the Academy of Esperanto, as well as the Plena Vortaro de Esperanto, released by the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda, as well as Kazimierz Bein’s Vortaro de Esperanto, and the Plena Ilustrita Vortaro.

Chaucer’s works were written during the late fourteenth century, a period which saw considerable changes in the functions of the English language as it came to replace French and Latin as the languages of written record. As well as being an important source for the scholarly understanding of late Middle English, Chaucer’s works shed light on the status of English and its variety of registers and dialects, enabling scholars to gain a deeper awareness of the sociolinguistic connotations of its different forms and usages. The Canterbury Tales, with its array of pilgrims drawn from a variety of professions, social classes and geographical regions narrating a series of tales reflecting a wide range of genres, is a valuable source of evidence for historical pragmatics. This chapter shows the way in which Chaucer’s text offers insights into the conventions of social interaction, including forms of address, politeness and verbal aggression, and the use of discourse markers.

This conversation between Ilan Stavans and Haoran Tong centers on the evolution of Chinese dictionary-making that reflects a rich sociocultural and political tradition that spans millennia. Dictionaries translate the historical into the present, the frontier into the inland. The refinement of character dictionaries such as Erya and Shuowen jiezi facilitated the writing system’s revolutions. The emergence of bilingual dictionaries documented the transformation of Chinese phonetic notations. From exegesis of Confucian classics to compilations of ethnic dialects, institutional dictionary-making by the literati class remains an immutable symbol of the power to normalize, standardize, and harmonize. The divergence of definitions, notations, and arrangements of words across various dictionaries mirrors a proliferation of ideas on the future of the Chinese language and the Chineseness it embodies.

This chapter explores the role of central aspects of cognition in historical linguistics. After describing and discussing the cognitive commitment and its theoretical background, this chapter highlights the relation to cognitive archaeology as well as historical psychology and explores the methodological prerequisites for cognitive approaches to the history of English, particularly the quantitative turn in cognitive linguistics. Case studies from different periods of English illustrate how cognitive factors can shed light on synchronic historical language stages and diachronic developments, and how these in turn can help us to further explore the cognitive commitment. Finally, we argue for a feedback loop, where modern cognitive linguistic theories feed into and guide historical enquiries, but are also checked and modified, if necessary, on the basis of historical findings.

This chapter takes a perspective on Shakespeare’s language that is more in tune with linguistics than literary criticism. Hence, it covers areas of language typically and traditionally discussed within linguistics, including phonology, grammar, lexis and semantics, but also includes pragmatics and, briefly, Conversation Analysis. It begins with a consideration of the label ‘Shakespeare’s language’ and what exactly that might encompass; the role of Shakespeare’s language in the study of the history of English; and popular myths that have arisen around Shakespeare’s language. It concludes with a reflection on methods of study, especially digital methods. It strives not only to acknowledge key research, but also to give the flavour of some of the findings of that research.

This chapter summarizes the complex nature of bilingual academic communication, highlighting the gradual and non-binary process of language acquisition. It emphasizes the importance of academic language, which is structured with regular patterns that facilitate learning in subjects like math, history, and science. It advocates for a deeper understanding of how academic language proficiency is developed through the systematic practice of lexis, syntax, and discourse.

In an era of globalization, multilingualism is vital for social mobility and equity. Educational institutions must adapt to the multilingual reality of today’s classrooms, where proficiency in a global language can open doors to social rights and international participation. The chapter stresses that multilingualism should be seen as an asset, not a transitional quirk, and highlights the benefits of bilingual education in fostering cognitive flexibility and critical thinking. Finally, it explores the need for proper resources, including qualified bilingual teachers, to make bilingual education effective and accessible to all students.

This chapter focuses on phraseological units in the development of English. In the past years, an increasing number of studies have dealt with this topic, partly within different theoretical frameworks, such as lexicalisation, grammaticalisation or constructionalisation. On the basis of a selection of case studies mostly with a focus on corpus linguistics, this chapter aims to highlight selected findings on phraseological units in the history of English, emphasising questions such as the relationship between phraseological and non-phraseological language development, structural variation vs fixedness, and the role of style. The discussion of the case studies proceeds from one of the smallest units (phrasal verb) in ascending structural complexity to the largest, sentence-length unit (proverb), and finally to units with variable slots. The chapter finishes with considerations of the phraseological force in language development and the place of phraseologicalisation in theories of language change.

The chapter is concerned with ego documents, that is sources like autobiographies, diaries and letters, as a data source for historians of the English language. First, the term ego documents is defined and its merits for historical sociolinguistic research are outlined. Thereafter, literacy and education opportunities, and the availability of and approaches to ego documents, are traced from the later Middle Ages to the Modern English period, followed by an illustration of language use across social layers, and a comparison to another contemporary text type. A particular focus is put on ego documents as a source of vernacular speech, for example as data for varieties of English for which there is no other contemporary documentation. The examples given illustrate the sometimes more speech-like and informal nature of ego documents and highlight the value of the text category for historical linguistics.

This chapter delves into the role of discourse in language development, extending beyond simple grammar to encompass social context and effective communication. It examines how cognitive structures, linguistic principles, and text genres – narrative, descriptive, expository, and argumentative – interact to shape discourse. Special focus is placed on cognitive discourse functions (CDFs), which guide thought and communication, alongside the importance of cohesion and coherence in constructing meaning.

While discourse is often overshadowed by syntax and lexis, research uncovers developmental patterns in both monolinguals and bilinguals. As learners advance, they refine cohesion strategies, transition from narrative to expository texts, and better integrate CDFs. Tools like Coh-Metrix and TAACO aid in discourse analysis, though much is still to be explored.

L1 and L2 discourse development follows similar paths, though L2 growth may lag due to syntactic proficiency thresholds. This chapter highlights the interplay of cognition, language exposure, and academic demands in shaping discourse mastery, reinforcing the need to support multilingual proficiency in education.

This chapter provides an overview of manuscript production and reception in the OE and ME periods. It focuses on how manuscripts were produced, the cognitive copying practices of its scribes, the subsequent use of manuscript texts by their readers, and the implications these issues have for the texts and data that survive. It considers the methodological issues arising from working on manuscripts in both their physical and edited forms. The chapter argues for the importance of considering manuscript evidence – including material aspects of the text – when using such texts as data for linguistic enquiry, and the value of this overlooked material for increasing our understanding of diachronic change. Finally, the chapter highlights and demonstrates some fruitful approaches to medieval textual material from the disciplines of historical sociolinguistics, dialectology, pragmatics and philology.