To investigate the association between cooking behaviour and long-term survival among elderly Taiwanese.

Cohort study. The duration of follow-up was the interval between the date of interview and the date of death or 31 December 2008, when censored for survivors. Information used included demographics, socio-economic status, health behaviours, cooking frequencies, physical function, cognitive function, nutrition knowledge awareness, eating out habits and food and nutrient intakes. These data were linked to death records. Cox proportional-hazards models were used to evaluate cooking frequency on death from 1999 to 2008 with related covariate adjustments.

Elderly Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan, 1999–2000.

Nationally representative free-living elderly people aged ≥65 years (n 1888).

During a 10-year follow-up, 695 participants died. Those who cooked most frequently were younger, women, unmarried, less educated, non-drinkers of alcohol, non-smokers, without chewing difficulty, had spouse as dinner companion, normal cognition, who walked or shopped more than twice weekly, who ate less meat and more vegetables. Highly frequent cooking (>5 times/week, compared with never) predicted survival (hazard ratio (HR) = 0·47; 95 % CI, 0·36, 0·61); with adjustment for physical function, cognitive function, nutrition knowledge awareness and other covariates, HR was 0·59 (95 % CI, 0·41, 0·86). Women benefited more from cooking more frequently than did men, with decreased HR, 51 % v. 24 %, when most was compared with least. A 2-year delay in the assessment of survivorship led to similar findings.

Cooking behaviour favourably predicts survivorship. Highly frequent cooking may favour women more than men.

To examine whether involvement in food preparation tracks over time, between adolescence (15–18 years), emerging adulthood (19–23 years) and the mid-to-late twenties (24–28 years), as well as 10-year longitudinal associations between home food preparation, dietary quality and meal patterning.

Population-based, longitudinal cohort study.

Participants were originally sampled from Minnesota public secondary schools (USA).

Participants enrolled in Project EAT (Eating Among Teens and Young Adults)-I, EAT-II and EAT-III (n 1321).

Most participants in their mid-to-late twenties reported an enjoyment of cooking (73 % of males, 80 % of females); however, few prepared meals including vegetables most days of the week (24 % of males, 41 % of females). Participants in their mid-to-late twenties who enjoyed cooking were more likely to have engaged in food preparation as adolescents and emerging adults (P < 0·01); those who frequently prepared meals including vegetables were more likely to have engaged in food preparation as emerging adults (P < 0·001), but not as adolescents. Emerging adult food preparation predicted better dietary quality five years later in the mid-to-late twenties, including higher intakes of fruit, vegetables and dark green/orange vegetables, and less sugar-sweetened beverage and fast-food consumption. Associations between adolescent food preparation and later dietary quality yielded few significant results.

Food preparation behaviours appeared to track over time and engagement in food preparation during emerging adulthood, but not adolescence, was associated with healthier dietary intake during the mid-to-late twenties. Intervention studies are needed to understand whether promoting healthy food preparation results in improvements in eating patterns during the transition to adulthood.

To evaluate the implementation of a controlled, 6-week, environmental and educational intervention to improve dietary intake and body composition, and to study the association of implementation fidelity with diet and body composition outcomes.

A process evaluation documented participation, dose of nutrition education delivered, participant satisfaction, fidelity and completeness of the food environment intervention implementation, and context through observations and interviews with staff and residents. Intervention sites were scored and categorized as high or low participation and implementation and compared on essential elements of the food environment and on diet and body composition outcomes.

Six urban residential drug-treatment facilities in Upstate New York.

Fifty-five primarily black and white men in residential drug-treatment programmes.

Participants were exposed to 94 % and 69 % of the educational and environmental elements, respectively. High implementation sites were significantly more likely to provide water and 100 % juice, offer fruit or vegetable salad, offer choices of fruits and vegetables, and limit fried foods. Mixed-model analysis of covariance revealed that participants in the high participation and implementation sites reported greater reductions in total energy, percentage of energy from sweets, daily servings of fats, oils and sweets, and BMI over the intervention period. Participants in low participation and implementation sites reported greater reductions in percentage of energy from fat. Differential implementation of environmental elements limited the intervention impact.

These findings document the contribution of changes in eating environments to facilitate dietary behaviour change in community residential substance-abuse settings.

To identify children's iodine nutrition and goitre status in areas with mildly excessive iodine in drinking water.

A cross-sectional survey. Probability proportional to size sampling was employed to randomly select children from thirty townships where the median iodine content in drinking water ranged from 150 to 300 μg/l; their urinary iodine concentrations were determined and their thyroid volumes were measured by ultrasound. Drinking water samples and salt samples from the villages where the children lived were collected using a systematic sampling method.

Hebei Province of China.

A total of 1259 children aged 8–10 years (621 boys and 638 girls).

Children's median urinary iodine concentration was found to be 418·8 μg/l, and the iodine concentration was >300 μg/l for 68·3 % (248/363) of the urine samples. Children's median urinary iodine concentration in villages with median salt iodine >10 mg/kg was significantly higher than that in villages with median salt iodine <5 mg/kg (442·9 μg/l v. 305·4 μg/l, P ≈ 0). The goitre rate of 1259 children examined by ultrasound was 10·96 %.

The iodine intake of children living in areas with mildly excessive iodine in drinking water in Hebei Province was found to be excessive. The measured iodine excess in the sampled children is exacerbated by consumption of iodized salt. Goitre was identified in these areas; however, due to the limitation of the current criteria for children's thyroid volume, a comprehensive assessment of the prevalence of goitre in these regions could not be made and further study is required.

To examine 21-year longitudinal changes in dietary habits and their associations with age and marital status among women aged 50–60 years at baseline.

Prospective, longitudinal study of a cohort in the FINMONICA population-based risk factor survey with clinical assessments in 1982, 1992 and 2003. Dietary habits were assessed via self-reported consumption of foods typically contributing to SFA, cholesterol and sugar intakes in the Finnish diet. A dietary risk score based upon five items was used.

Kuopio region, Finland.

Complete data from all three assessments for 103 women of the original cohort of 299 were included for two age groups: 50–54 and 55–60 years at baseline.

Dietary habits improved between 1982 and 1992 and showed continued but less pronounced improvement between 1992 and 2003: within the younger age group, 78 % of the women reduced the number of dietary risk points from the 1982 to 2003 scores, whereas 3 % increased them and 19 % reported no change. In the older age group these percentages were 61 %, 23 % and 16 %, respectively. Women who remained married showed a steadier decline in dietary risk points than single women or women who were widows at the beginning of the follow-up.

Older women make positive changes to their dietary habits but the consistency of these changes may be affected by the ageing process, marital status and changes in the latter.

To develop a psychometrically valid questionnaire for testing knowledge on micronutrients and to assess the relationship between knowledge and biomarkers of micronutrient status among adolescents.

Cross-sectional, institution-based, validity and reliability study.

Seven higher secondary schools were covered in the limits of Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad, India.

Students aged 15–19 years, n 92 for the pre-test, n 108 for test–retest and n 109 for studying the relationship between knowledge and biomarkers of Fe, retinol, ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, folic acid and vitamin B12 status.

From an item pool of 106, thirty-one items were selected based on content validity. Statistical tools to obtain a valid and reliable questionnaire among adolescent boys and girls resulted in eighteen items with a difficulty index of 0·11–0·86, discrimination index of 0·20–0·72 and validity index (point bi-serial correlation) of 0·10–0·62. Reliability as measured by Cronbach's α was 0·71 and the intra-class correlation coefficient was 0·80. A Bland–Altman plot showed good agreement between test and retest scores. The mean response score to the eighteen-item questionnaire was 5·2 (sd 2·68). The mean values of serum retinol were significantly different (P = 0·022) between groups below (24·8 (sd 6·64) μg/dl) and above (28·0 (sd 7·67) μg/dl) the 50th percentile of knowledge score. The relationship persisted after controlling for economic status as a covariate using analysis of covariance (P = 0·018). Other micronutrients did not show any significant relationship.

A valid and reliable eighteen-item knowledge questionnaire was constructed and found to have a significant positive relationship with plasma retinol status alone.

To provide updated estimates of drinking water intake (total, tap, plain bottled) for groups aged ≥1 year in the USA and to determine whether intakes collected in 2005–2006 using the Automated Multiple-Pass Method for the 24 h recall differ from intakes collected in 2003–2004 via post-recall food-frequency type questions.

Cross-sectional, observational study.

What We Eat in America (WWEIA), the dietary intake component of the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

Individuals aged ≥1 year in 2003–2004 (n 8249) and 2005–2006 (n 8437) with one complete 24 h recall.

The estimate for the percentage of individuals who reported total drinking water in 2005–2006 was significantly (P < 0·0000) smaller (76·9 %) than that for 2003–2004 (87·1 %), attributable to a lower percentage reporting tap water (54·1 % in 2005–2006 v. 67·0 % in 2003–2004; P = 0·0001). Estimates of mean tap water intake differed between the survey cycles for men aged ≥71 years.

Survey variables must be examined before combining or comparing data from multiple WWEIA/NHANES release cycles. For at least some age/gender groups, drinking water intake data from NHANES cycles prior to 2005–2006 should not be considered comparable to more recent data.

To evaluate the impact of different modes of administration (face-to-face v. telephone), recall days (first v. second), days of the week (weekday v. weekend) and interview days (1 d later v. 2 d later) on bias in protein and K intakes collected with 24 h dietary recalls (24-HDR).

Two non-consecutive 24-HDR (collected with standardised EPIC-Soft software) were used to estimate protein and K intakes by a face-to-face interview at the research centres and a telephone interview, and included all days of the week. Two 24 h urine collections were used to determine biomarkers of protein and K intake. The bias in intake was defined as the ratio between the 24-HDR estimate and the biomarker.

Five centres in Belgium, Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands and Norway in the European Food Consumption Validation (EFCOVAL) study.

About 120 adults (aged 45–65 years) per centre.

The bias in protein intake in the Czech Republic and Norway was smaller for telephone than face-to-face interviews (P = 0·01). The second 24-HDR estimates of protein intake in France and K intake in Belgium had a larger bias than the first 24-HDR (P = 0·01 and 0·04, respectively). In the Czech Republic, protein intake estimated during weekends and K intake estimated during weekdays had a larger bias than during other days of the week (P = 0·01). In addition, K intake collected 2 d later in the Czech Republic was likely to be overestimated.

The biases in protein and K intakes were comparable between modes of administration, recall days, days of the week and interview days in some, but not all, study centres.

Developing countries have adopted universal, high-potency vitamin A (VA) supplementation and food fortification as major strategies to control deficiency, prevent nutritional blindness and reduce child mortality. Yet questions persist regarding how best to measure impact and when to phase out supplementation. The present paper provides guidance on the use and interpretation of serum retinol (SROL) distributions as indicators of both programme impact and adequate VA intake in a population.

We reviewed extant data on SROL's response to high-potency VA supplementation and VA-fortified foods in children.

Supplementation virtually eliminates xerophthalmia and reduces child mortality; however, it shifts the SROL distribution only transiently (<2 months). Regular consumption of VA-fortified foods prevents xerophthalmia, lowers mortality and sustainably improves SROL distributions, from which both compliance and public health impact can be inferred.

Given SROL's limited responsiveness to high-potency VA supplementation, target population coverage remains the preferred performance indicator. However, periodic SROL surveys do reflect underlying dietary risk and can guide programming: low or marginal SROL distributions in areas with high supplementation coverage do not signify programme failure, but rather suggest the need to continue supplementation while working to effectively raise dietary VA intakes. We propose that a sustained rise in the SROL distribution, defined as ≤5 % prevalence of SROL < 0·70 μmol/l among vulnerable population groups in at least two consecutive surveys (≥1 year apart), be used as an indicator of stable and adequate dietary VA intake and status in a population, at which point programmes may re-evaluate the need for continued universal supplementation.

The USA currently fortifies enriched cereal grain products (ECGP) with folic acid at 140 μg/100 g. In addition, folic acid can be voluntarily added to ready-to-eat cereals (RTEC) up to 400 μg/serving and it is found in many dietary supplements, most often at a dose of 400 μg. We sought to model folic acid intake under various fortification and supplementation scenarios.

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey is a population-based cross-sectional survey representative of the non-institutionalized, civilian US population. Information on folic acid intake is collected in two 24 h dietary recalls and survey questions on dietary supplement use, which allows estimation of usual total folic acid intake. We modelled five different levels of folic acid fortification in ECGP, while varying the amounts in RTEC and dietary supplements.

United States.

US adults (n 14 353) aged ≥19 years; non-pregnant women of childbearing age (n 4272).

The percentage of adults with usual daily folic acid intake above the tolerable upper intake level of 1000 μg was influenced more by the typical amount in supplements, while the median intake was influenced more by the ECGP fortification level. By manipulating the amount in at least two sources, it was possible to shift the distribution such that more women of childbearing age consumed the recommended intake of 400 μg of folic acid without increasing the percentage of adults with intake above the tolerable upper intake level. The results varied among population subgroups.

Our results suggest that combined strategies are required to meet population recommendations for folic acid intake.

We examined the quality of food outlet addresses provided by secondary sources and determined whether they could be physically located in the field.

Addresses of food outlets in fourteen school districts in the northern part of Copenhagen were obtained from multiple business locators. We geocoded 202 addresses using a geographic information system and cross-referenced the sources against each other using a validation grid. Physical presence was determined via street survey. We applied gamma statistics and calculated positive predictive value, sensitivity and percentage agreement to assess the overall correspondence between our test of physical presence and each source of secondary information.

The study took place within city boundaries of Copenhagen, Denmark.

Food outlets within fourteen school districts within Copenhagen.

Positive predictive value between field results and secondary sources indicated good to excellent correspondence (range: 0·81–0·98), comparable with other studies. Gamma coefficients indicated low to high positive correspondence (range: 0·23–0·98).

Despite moderately high correspondence between secondary sources of address information and field observation, the findings illustrate that the use of combined sources is recommended.

The purpose was to examine the role of dietary patterns derived from factor analysis and their association with health and disease.

Longitudinal population study, with measurement of diet (dietary history method), cardiovascular risk factors and a follow-up of 20 years for CHD incidence and 40 years for mortality.

Two population samples in rural villages in northern and central Italy.

Men (n 1221) aged 45–64 years were examined and followed up.

One of the factors identified with factor analysis, run on seventeen food groups, was converted into a factor score (Factor 2 score) and used as a possible predictor of morbid and fatal events. High values of Factor 2 score were characterized by higher consumption of bread, cereals (pasta), potatoes, vegetables, fish and oil and by lower consumption of milk, sugar, fruit and alcoholic beverages. In multivariate analysis, Factor 2 score (mean 0·0061; sd 1·3750) was inversely and significantly associated (hazard ratio for a 1 sd increase; 95% CI) with 20-year CHD incidence (0·88; 0·73, 0·96) and 40-year mortality from CHD (0·79; 0·66, 0·95), CVD (0·87; 0·78, 0·96), cancer (0·84; 0·74, 0·96) and all causes (0·89; 0·83, 0·96), after adjustment for five other risk factors. Men in quintile 5 of Factor 2 score had a 4·1 years longer life expectancy compared with men in quintile 1.

A dietary pattern derived from factor analysis, and resembling the characteristics of the Mediterranean diet, was protective for the occurrence of various morbid and fatal events during 40 years of follow-up.

The aim of the study was to describe who ate 5 or more portions of fruit and vegetables per day (‘compliers’) in 1986–1987 and in 2000–2001.

We used data from the Dietary and Nutritional Surveys of British Adults. Each is a nationally representative dietary survey using 7 d weighed food records for men and women, aged 16–64 years, living in private households in Great Britain in 1986–1987 and in 2000–2001.

Great Britain.

Data were analysed for 2197 adults in 1986–1987 and 1724 adults in 2000–2001.

In 1986–1987 12·7 % were classified as ‘compliers’ compared with 16·5 % in 2000–2001. Manual social classes, younger participants and people on benefits or outside paid employment were less likely to be ‘compliers’. Being divorced, widowed or separated was negatively related to being a ‘complier’, as was being in a household with dependant children or a lone parent with dependant children. Between 1986–1987 and 2000–2001 improvements were seen across social class groups and differences between men and women and between regions were reduced.

Only 12·7 % participants in the Dietary and Nutritional Surveys of British Adults were classified as ‘compliers’ in 1986–1987 compared with 16·5 % in 2000–2001. There have been some important changes in the distribution of ‘compliers’, but the low levels overall support the need for a reinvigorated policy drive to improve compliance with fruit and vegetable goals.

To analyse changes in food choices, diet-related risk factors and their association during 6 months of military service.

Longitudinal cohort study in Finland, where all men are liable to military service and a clear majority of each age group completes service. Dietary intake data were collected by self-administered questionnaire before and at 6 months of service. Three dietary indices based on food frequencies were developed to characterize the diet: Sugar Index, Fibre Index and Fat Index. Thirteen diet-related risk factors were measured at the beginning and at 6 months of service.

Military environment, two geographically distinct garrisons.

Male conscripts aged 18–21 years (n 256) performing military service.

During 6 months of service, positive changes concerned more frequent use of fibre-rich foods (P = 0·011), improved body composition (BMI, waist circumference, muscle mass, fat mass and percentage body fat, P ≤ 0·003 for all), decreased systolic blood pressure and increased HDL cholesterol (P < 0·001 for both). Negative changes concerned more frequent use of sugar-rich foods and increased total cholesterol, TAG and blood glucose (P < 0·001 for all). The consumption of fibre-rich foods was inversely associated with anthropometric risk factors at baseline and with sugar-rich foods at both time points.

Despite more frequent consumption of sweet foods, military service with a unified, nutritionally planned diet, a controlled environment and high physical load has a positive effect on conscripts’ health risk factors. The negative changes in blood lipids and glucose may reflect more varied free-time eating.

To examine associations between maternal employment and time spent engaging in nutrition-related behaviours among mothers and children using a nationally representative sample of households in West and East Germany.

A cross-sectional analysis was performed using time-use data for a sample of mother–child dyads. Associations between maternal employment and time spent in nutrition-related activities such as eating at home, eating away from home and food preparation were estimated using a double-hurdle model.

German Time Budget Survey 2001/02.

The overall sample included 1071 households with a child between 10 and 17 years of age. The time-use data were collected for a 3 d period of observation (two weekdays and one weekend day).

Maternal employment was associated with the time children spent on nutrition-related behaviours. In households with employed mothers, children spent more time eating alone at home and less time eating meals with their mothers. Moreover, employed mothers spent less time on meal preparation compared with non-employed mothers. There were regional differences in time spent on nutrition-related behaviours, such that East German children were more likely to eat at home alone than West German children.

Maternal employment was associated with less time spent eating with children and preparing food, which may be related to the increasing childhood obesity rates in Germany. Future national surveys that collect both time-use data and health outcomes could yield further insight into mechanisms by which maternal time use might be associated with health outcomes among children.

Perceptions that fruit and vegetables are expensive have been found to be associated with lower consumption of fruit and vegetables among disadvantaged women; however, the determinants of these perceptions are relatively unknown. The purpose of the current paper is to examine whether perceived availability and quality of fruit and vegetables, and social support for healthy eating, are associated with perceptions of fruit and vegetable affordability among women residing in disadvantaged neighbourhoods.

Cross-sectional self-report survey.

The study was conducted in Melbourne, Australia.

An Australian sample of 4131 women, aged 18–45 years, residing in neighbourhoods ranked in the lowest Victorian tertile of relative disadvantage by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, an index that considers aspects of disadvantage such as residents’ income, education, motor vehicle access and employment.

Results showed that irrespective of education, income and other key covariates, women who perceived poor availability and quality of fruit and vegetables in their local neighbourhood were more likely to perceive fruit and vegetables as expensive.

Our results suggest that perceptions of fruit and vegetable affordability are not driven exclusively by lack of financial or knowledge-related resources, but also by women's psychological response and interpretation of their local nutrition environment.

To compare dietary intake and quality among adult Inuit by smoking status.

A cross-sectional study using data from a validated quantitative FFQ.

Three isolated communities in Nunavut, Canada.

Adult Inuit (n 208), aged between 19 and 79 years, from randomly selected households.

Average energy intake did not differ between male smokers (n 22) and non-smokers (n 14; 16 235 kJ and 13 503 kJ; P = 0·18), but was higher among female smokers (n 126) compared with non-smokers (n 46; 12 704 kJ and 8552 kJ; P < 0·0001). Average daily nutrient intakes were similar among men and higher among female smokers compared with non-smokers for all nutrients (P ≤ 0·05) except n-3 fatty acids, vitamin A, vitamin D and Se. Female smokers had lower intake densities of thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, Mg, Na (P ≤ 0·05), protein, n-3 fatty acids, cholesterol, Fe (P ≤ 0·01), vitamin B12 and Se (P ≤ 0·001). Between 20 % and 50 % of male and female smokers were below the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for Ca, folate, Mg and vitamins A and K, and more than 50 % were below the DRI for fibre and vitamin E. The proportion of smokers below the DRI was lower for all nutrients, except fibre and folate among men. Among smokers, non-nutrient-dense foods and traditional foods contributed less to energy (−2·1 % and −2·0 %, respectively).

Adult smokers consumed fewer nutrient-dense, traditional foods, but had increased energy intake, which likely contributed to fewer dietary inadequacies compared with non-smokers. Promoting traditional food consumption supplemented with market-bought fruits and vegetables is important to improve dietary quality, especially among smokers.

To examine household food insecurity and hunger in Sidama Zone, one of the most populous zones in southern Ethiopia.

Cross-sectional survey administered individually by trained interviewers. Food insecurity was calculated with both the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and the Household Hunger Scale (HHS), developed by the Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project.

Rural households from ten kebeles (the smallest administrative district) selected from two agro-climatic zones in Sidama, southern Ethiopia, from December 2010 to January 2011.

Men and women respondents from 1094 rural households were selected using multistage sampling techniques.

Using the HFIAS, 17·7 % of households were food secure. The percentage of households that were mildly, moderately and severely food insecure was 6·8 %, 27·7 % and 47·8 %, respectively. Using the HHS, 29·0 % and 5·6 % of households fell into the moderate and severe household hunger categories. Using multivariate statistical techniques, five variables were significant predictors of both food insecurity and hunger. These variables were migration of a household member, agro-climatic zone, and younger age, less education and lower radio access for the woman. Being eligible for safety-net credit programmes also was a predictor of hunger, while limited animal ownership and household wealth as well as alcohol use by the household head added to the prediction of food insecurity.

The study documented that food insecurity is a major concern of smallholder farming households in the study area. A substantial majority of the households were facing mild to severe food insecurity and hunger for an extended period of time.