Plastic chemicals are numerous and ubiquitous in modern life and pose significant risks to human health. Observational epidemiological studies have been instrumental in identifying consistent and statistically significant associations between exposure to certain chemicals and adverse health outcomes. However, these studies often fail to establish causality due to the complexity of real-world chemical mixtures, confounding factors, reverse causation, and study designs that lack measures reflecting underlying genetic and cellular mechanisms indicating causal pathways to harm. Addressing these limitations requires moving beyond traditional ‘black-box’ epidemiology, which mainly focuses on the strength of associations. We propose adopting hybrid epidemiological methodologies that incorporate genetic susceptibility and molecular mechanisms to uncover biological pathways, combined with machine learning and statistical analysis of chemical mixtures, to strengthen the causal evidence linking exposure to harm. By integrating observational multi-omics data with experimental and mechanistic models, hybrid epidemiology offers a transformative path to improve causal evidence and public health interventions. In addition, machine learning and statistical methods provide a more nuanced understanding of the health effects of exposures to plastic chemical mixtures, facilitating the identification of interactions within chemical mixtures and the influence of biological pathways. This paradigm shift is critical addressing the complex challenges of plastic exposure and protecting human health.

Dietary fat type has been suggested as a risk factor for development of multiple sclerosis (MS)(1); however, the evidence is inconclusive. We aimed to test associations between dietary patterns correlated with intake of saturated fat (SFA), polyunsaturated fat (PUFA), monounsaturated fat (MUFA), along with the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) score, and risk of a first clinical diagnosis of central nervous system demyelination (FCD), a common precursor to the diagnosis of MS. We used data from the Ausimmune Study, a multicentre Australian case-control study of people with an FCD, aged 18–59 years. Using dietary intake data from a 101-item food frequency questionnaire(2), dietary patterns characterised by fat type (DP1; DP2) were generated through reduced rank regression with SFA, PUFA and MUFA as response variables. DASH scores were calculated. Logistic regression with full propensity score matching (matched on age, sex, study region, education, smoking history, history of infectious mononucleosis, deseasonalised serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration, total energy intake, dietary misreporting) was used to test associations between dietary patterns (DP1, DP2, DASH) and FCD (cases = 259, controls = 497). Interactions between dietary exposures and sex were explored. DP1 was positively correlated with all fats and was characterised by high positive factor loadings for whole milk, processed red meat, and high-fat cheese, and high negative factor loadings for skimmed milk and fruits. DP2 was negatively correlated with SFA, but positively correlated with PUFA and MUFA, and was characterised by high positive factor loadings for margarine, nuts, and wholemeal bread, and high negative factor loadings for butter, whole milk, and sugar, preserves and confectionary. There were no associations between DP1, DP2 or DASH with FCD. These dietary patterns, characterised by fat type, showed no association with risk of FCD. To generate robust evidence on the role of dietary fat in MS onset, dietary patterns characterised by fat type could be explored in other population groups.

The colonisation of Australia around 250 years ago resulted in significant disruptive changes to the lifestyle and diet of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Traditional foods high in micronutrients, including vitamin D, have been largely replaced with energy-dense foods(1). Sun exposure—a primary source of vitamin D—may be reduced due to changes in clothing and housing structure(2). Consequently, there is a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration < 50 nmol/L) and low vitamin D intake among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples(2,3). There is a need for a public health strategy to improve vitamin D status. Since few foods naturally contain vitamin D (e.g., fish, eggs, and meat), food fortification could be a suitable public health strategy to increase vitamin D intake without changing consumption behaviour. In Australia, besides food mandated for fortification (e.g., edible oil spreads), few foods permitted for voluntary fortification are routinely fortified. We aimed to model vitamin D food fortification scenarios among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. We used nationally representative food consumption data from the 2012–2013 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 4,109) and analytical vitamin D food composition data(4) to model four food fortification scenarios. Scenario 1 modelled the addition of the maximum permitted amount of vitamin D to all foods permitted for fortification in Australia: i) dairy products and alternatives, ii) butter/margarine/oil spreads, iii) formulated beverages (e.g., water with added sugar, vitamins and minerals), and iv) selected ready-to-eat breakfast cereal. Scenarios 2a–c included vitamin D concentrations higher than permitted in fluid milks/alternatives (1 μg/day) and butter/margarine/oil spreads (20 μg/day). Scenario 2a: i) dairy products and alternatives, ii) butter/margarine/oil spreads, iii) formulated beverages. Scenario 2b: as per Scenario 2a plus selected ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Scenario 2c: as per Scenario 2b plus bread (not permitted for vitamin D fortification in Australia). Vitamin D fortification of a range of staple foods could potentially increase vitamin D intake among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples by ~3–6 μg/day. Scenario 2c showed the highest potential median vitamin D intake increase from baseline of 2 μg/day to ~8 μg/day. Across all scenarios, the vitamin D intake of all participants remained below the Australian Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 80 μg/day. Our findings demonstrated that vitamin D fortification of a range of staple foods could potentially increase vitamin D intake among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia. However, the most impactful vitamin D fortification strategy (Scenario 2c) would require a revision of the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code to permit the addition of higher amounts of vitamin D than currently permitted and the inclusion of bread as a food vehicle for fortification.

Dietary nitrate is a precursor to nitric oxide, for which plausible mechanisms exist for both beneficial and detrimental influences in multiple sclerosis (MS)(1,2). Whether dietary nitrate has any role in MS onset is unclear. We aimed to test associations between nitrate intake from food sources (plant, vegetable, animal, processed meat, and unprocessed meat) and likelihood of a first clinical diagnosis of central nervous system demyelination (FCD). We used data from the Ausimmune Study (264 cases, 474 controls). Case participants (aged 19–59 years) presenting to medical professionals in four latitudinally different regions of Australia were referred to the study with an FCD. The Australian Electoral Roll was used to recruit one to four controls per case, matched by age (± 2 years), sex and study region. Habitual dietary intake representing the 12-month period preceding the study interview was assessed to determine dietary nitrate intake. In addition to matching variables, data on education, smoking history, and history of infectious mononucleosis, weight and height were collected. A blood sample was taken for measurement of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration, which was de-seasonalised. To test associations, we used logistic regression with full propensity score matching. We used two levels of covariate matching: in model 1, cases and controls were matched on the original matching variables (age, sex, and study region); in model 2, cases and controls were additionally matched on well-established/potential risk factors for MS (education, smoking history, and history of infectious mononucleosis) and dietary factors (total energy intake and dietary misreporting). In females only (n = 573; 368 controls and 205 cases), higher nitrate intake (per 60 mg/day) from plant-based foods (fully adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.50, 95% CI, 0.31, 0.81, p < 0.01) or vegetables (aOR = 0.44, 95% CI, 0.27, 0.73, p < 0.01) was statistically significantly associated with lower likelihood of FCD. No association was found between nitrate intake (any sources) and likelihood of FCD in males. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate dietary nitrate intake in relation to FCD. Our result that higher intake of nitrate from plant-based foods (mainly vegetables) was associated with lower likelihood of FCD in females supports our previous findings showing that following a Mediterranean diet (rich in vegetables) associates with lower likelihood of FCD(3). The lack of association in males may be due to low statistical power and/or differing food preferences and pathological processes among males and females. Our results support further research to delineate the independent effect of nitrates form other dietary factors and explore a possible beneficial role for plant-derived nitrate in people at high risk of MS.

Low vitamin D status (circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration < 50 nmol/L) affects nearly one in four Australian adults(1). The primary source of vitamin D is sun exposure; however, a safe level of sun exposure for optimal vitamin D production has not been established. As supplement use is uneven, increasing vitamin D in food is the logical option for improving vitamin D status at a population level. The dietary supply of vitamin D is low since few foods are naturally rich in vitamin D. While there is no Australia-specific estimated average requirement (EAR) for vitamin D, the Institute of Medicine recommends an EAR of 10 μg/day for all ages. Vitamin D intake is low in Australia, with mean usual intake ranging from 1.8–3.2 μg/day across sex/age groups(2), suggesting a need for data-driven nutrition policy to improve the dietary supply of vitamin D. Food fortification has proven effective in other countries. We aimed to model four potential vitamin D fortification scenarios to determine an optimal strategy for Australia. We used food consumption data for people aged ≥ 2 years (n = 12,153) from the 2011–2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey, and analytical food composition data for vitamin D3, 25(OH)D3, vitamin D2 and 25(OH)D2(3). Certain foods are permitted for mandatory or voluntary fortification in Australia. As industry uptake of the voluntary option is low, Scenario 1 simulated addition of the maximum permitted amount of vitamin D to all foods permitted under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code (dairy products/plant-based alternatives, edible oil spreads, formulated beverages and permitted ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (RTEBC)). Scenarios 2–4 modelled higher concentrations than those permitted for fluid milk/alternatives (1 μg/100 mL) and edible oil spreads (20 μg/100 g) within an expanding list of food vehicles: Scenario 2—dairy products/alternatives, edible oil spreads, formulated beverages; Scenario 3—Scenario 2 plus RTEBC; Scenario 4—Scenario 3 plus bread (which is not permitted for vitamin D fortification in Australia). Usual intake was modelled for the four scenarios across sex and age groups using the National Cancer Institute Method(4). Assuming equal bioactivity of the D vitamers, the range of mean usual vitamin D intake across age groups for males for Scenarios 1 to 4, respectively, was 7.2–8.8, 6.9–8.3, 8.0–9.7 and 9.3–11.3 μg/day; the respective values for females were 5.8–7.5, 5.8–7.2, 6.4–8.3 and 7.5–9.5 μg/day. No participant exceeded the upper level of intake (80 μg/day) under any scenario. Systematic fortification of all foods permitted for vitamin D fortification could substantially improve vitamin D intake across the population. However, the optimal strategy would require permissions for bread as a food vehicle, and addition of higher than permitted concentrations of vitamin D to fluid milks/alternatives and edible oil spreads.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects approximately 2.8 million people worldwide. Among other risk factors, such as smoking and history of infectious mononucleosis, diet is emerging as a modifiable risk factor for MS. However, there is little evidence associating plant-based diets and MS risk. The few studies available investigated vegetarian diets and MS risk and found conflicting results: in one study, a vegetarian diet was associated with higher risk(1), the other with lower risk(2). The aim of this study was to investigate associations between plant-based indices and risk of MS. We used data from the UK Women’s Cohort Study, which followed adult women over 20 years (MS cases: n = 88, age = 47.9 years [SD 7.6]; controls n = 25,038, age = 52.1 years [SD 9.2]). We used three plant-based indices: i) plant-based index (PDI), ii) healthy plant-based index (hPDI) and iii) unhealthy plant-based index (uPDI)(3). These indices assign scores according to intakes of three food groups: ‘healthful plant-foods’ (e.g., fruits, vegetables), ‘unhealthful plant-foods’ (e.g., refined grains, sweets) and ‘animal foods’ (e.g., meat, fish). For the PDI, both the healthful and unhealthful plant-foods were positively scored from 1 to 5 according to increasing intakes. For the hPDI, healthful-plant foods were positively scored from 1 to 5 according to increasing intakes; unhealthful plant-based foods were scored in reverse. For the uPDI, unhealthful plant-based foods were scored positively, and the healthful plant-based foods were reverse-scored. Animal foods were reverse-scored for all three indices. MS incidence was ascertained from hospital records based on International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) code G35. Adjusted (age, smoking, education, energy intake) multivariable cox proportional hazard regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for risk of MS according to each dietary pattern separately (PDI, hPDI, uPDI) as well as each food group (healthful plant-foods, unhealthful plant-foods, animal foods). A higher PDI was associated with lower risk of MS (HR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92, 0.98, p = 0.001). However, the hPDI and the uPDI were not associated with MS risk. A higher intake of healthful (HR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.88, 0.98, p = 0.004) and unhealthful (HR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.85, 0.97, p = 0.008) plant-foods was associated with lower risk of MS, while animal foods were not associated with MS risk. These findings suggest that plant-based foods could be beneficial for people at high risk of MS, with no effect of animal products. However, these findings are from one country and for women only and may not necessarily be generalisable to other population groups. Future research investigating the association between plant-based diets and MS risk in other populations is warranted.

A new genus and species of arachnid (Chelicerata: Arachnida), Douglassarachne acanthopoda n. gen. n. sp., is described from the late Carboniferous (Moscovian) Coal Measures of the Mazon Creek Lagerstätte, Illinois, USA. This is a unique animal with distinctive large spines on the legs. It has a subovate body, a segmented opisthosoma, and a terminal anal tubercle. The legs are robust and appear to have been similar in construction throughout the limb series, with heavy spination of the preserved proximal podomeres. The mouthparts and coxo-sternal region are equivocal. The preserved character combination does not permit easy referral to any known arachnid order, living or extinct, thus the new fossil in placed as Arachnida/Pantetrapulmonata incertae sedis. It contributes to an emerging pattern of disparate body plans among late Carboniferous arachnids, ranging from anatomically modern members of living orders through to extinct taxa, such as the present fossil, whose phylogenetic position remains unresolved.

UUID: http://zoobank.org/b70f5f95-9c8b-4389-bee5-b6031bff2ee2

Despite high UVB radiation from the sun in Australia (the primary source of vitamin D), vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations [25(OH)D] <50 nmol/L) is prevalent among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples (27% of adults nationally; 39% of adults living in remote areas)(1). Vitamin D deficiency affects musculoskeletal health and may be associated with non-communicable diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, prevalent in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.(2, 3) Alternative to UVB radiation, vitamin D can also be obtained from foods (e.g., fish, eggs, and meat) and supplements. However, vitamin D intake in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is currently unknown. Hence, we aimed to provide the first estimate of absolute vitamin D intake in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. We used food consumption data from the 2012-2013 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey and vitamin D food composition data for vitamin D3, 25(OH)D3, vitamin D2, and 25(OH)D2. Absolute vitamin D intake was estimated by sex and remote and non-remote areas using bioactivity factors (BF) of 1 and 5 for 25(OH)D, which may be up to five times more bioactive than vitamin D. The estimated average requirement for vitamin D intake recommended by the Institute of Medicine is 10 μg/day(4). The estimated absolute vitamin D intake from food and beverages was low for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The mean estimated absolute vitamin D intake of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples was 2.9 μg/day and 5.3 μg/day for BF 1 and 5, respectively. Males had a higher mean intake (3.2 μg/day, BF 1 and 5.9 μg/day, BF 5) than females (2.6 μg/day, BF 1 and 4.7 μg/day, BF 5). Vitamin D intake was 2.9 μg/day (BF 1) and 5.2 μg/day (BF 5) in non-remote and 2.8 μg/day (BF 1) and 5.4 μg/day (BF 5) in remote areas. The high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and low vitamin D intake highlights a need to promote vitamin D sufficiency through public health policies. The results from this study can be used to model food fortification strategies to provide evidence for the development of nutrition policies to improve the vitamin D status of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population.

Ticks are composed of 3 extant families (Argasidae, Ixodidae and Nuttalliellidae) and 2 extinct families (Deinocrotonidae and Khimairidae). The Nuttalliellidae possess one extant species (Nuttalliella namaqua) limited to the Afrotropic region. A basal relationship to the hard and soft tick families and its limited distribution suggested an origin for ticks in the Afrotropics. The Deinocrotonidae has been found in Burmese amber from Myanmar and Iberian amber from Spain, suggesting a wider distribution of the lineage composed of Deinocrotonidae and Nuttalliellidae. The current study describes 8 fossils from mid-Cretaceous (ca. 100 Ma) Burmese amber: 2 Deinocroton species (Deinocroton bicornis sp. nov.; Deinocroton lacrimus sp. nov.), 5 Nuttalliella species (Nuttalliella gratae sp. nov., Nuttalliella tuberculata sp. nov., Nuttalliella placaventrala sp. nov., Nuttalliella odyssea sp. nov., Nuttalliella tropicasylvae sp. nov.) and a new genus and species (Legionaris nov. gen., Legionaris robustus sp. nov.). The argument is advanced that Deinocroton do not warrant its own family, but forms part of the Nuttalliellidae comprising 3 genera, Deinocroton, Legionaris nov. gen. and Nuttalliella). Affinities of Burmese tick fossils to the Australasian region, specifically related to rifting of the Burma terrane from northern Australia ~150 million years ago, suggest that Nuttalliella had a much wider distribution than its current limited distribution. The distribution of Nuttalliella likely stretched from Africa over Antarctica and much of Australia, suggesting that extant members of this family may still be found in Australia. Considerations for the geographic origins of ticks conclude that an Afrotropic origin can as yet not be discarded.

Although offspring of women exposed to childhood trauma exhibit elevated rates of psychopathology, many children demonstrate resilience to these intergenerational impacts. Among the variety of factors that likely contribute to resilience, epigenetic processes have been suggested to play an important role. The current study used a prospective design to test the novel hypothesis that offspring epigenetic aging – a measure of methylation differences that are associated with infant health outcomes – moderates the relationship between maternal exposure to childhood adversity and offspring symptomatology. Maternal childhood adversity was self-reported during pregnancy via the ACEs survey and the CTQ, which assessed total childhood trauma as well as maltreatment subtypes (i.e., emotional, physical, and sexual abuse). Offspring blood samples were collected at or shortly after birth and assayed on a DNA methylation microarray, and offspring symptomatology was assessed with the CBCL/1.5–5 when offspring were 2–4 years old. Results indicated that maternal childhood trauma, particularly sexual abuse, was predictive of offspring symptoms (ps = 0.003–0.03). However, the associations between maternal sexual abuse and offspring symptomatology were significantly attenuated in offspring with accelerated epigenetic aging. These findings further our understanding of how epigenetic processes may contribute to and attenuate the intergenerational link between stress and psychopathology.

Climate change has had a significant impact on glacier recession, particularly in the Arctic, where glacier meltwater is an important contributor to global sea-level rise. Therefore, it is important to accurately quantify glacier recession within this sensitive region, using multiple observations of glacier extent. In this study, we mapped 480 glaciers in Novaya Zemlya, Russian Arctic, using object-based image analysis applied to multispectral Landsat satellite imagery in Google Earth Engine and quantify the area changes between 1986–89 and 2019–21. The results show that in 1986–89, the total glacierized area was 22 990 ± 301 km2, in 2000–01 the area was 22 525 ± 308 km2 and by 2019–21 the glacier area reduced to 21 670 ± 292 km2, representing a total of 5.8% reduction in glacier area between 1986–89 and 2019–21. Higher glacier area loss was observed on the Barents Sea coast (7.3%) compared to the Kara (4.2%), reflecting previously observed differences in warming trends. The accuracy of the automatically generated outlines of each layer (1986–89, 2000–01 and 2019–21) was evaluated by comparing with manually corrected outlines (reference data) using random sampling, resulting in an overall accuracy estimate of between 96 and 97% compared to the reference data. This automated approach in Google Earth Engine is a promising tool for rapidly mapping glacier change that reduces the amount of time required to generate accurate glacier outlines.

Considerable progress continues to be made with regards to the value and use of disease associated polygenic scores (PGS). PGS aim to capture a person’s genetic liability to a condition, disease, or a trait, combining information across many risk variants and incorporating their effect sizes. They are already available for clinicians and consumers to order in Australasia. However, debate is ongoing over the readiness of this information for integration into clinical practice and population health. This position statement provides the viewpoint of the Human Genetics Society of Australasia (HGSA) regarding the clinical application of disease-associated PGS in both individual patients and population health. The statement details how PGS are calculated, highlights their breadth of possible application, and examines their current challenges and limitations. We consider fundamental lessons from Mendelian genetics and their continuing relevance to PGS, while also acknowledging the distinct elements of PGS. Use of PGS in practice should be evidence based, and the evidence for the associated benefit, while rapidly emerging, remains limited. Given that clinicians and consumers can already order PGS, their current limitations and key issues warrant consideration. PGS can be developed for most complex conditions and traits and can be used across multiple clinical settings and for population health. The HGSA’s view is that further evaluation, including regulatory, implementation and health system evaluation are required before PGS can be routinely implemented in the Australasian healthcare system.

Three examples of metastriate hard ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) with apparent affinities to modern Australasian genera are described from the mid-Cretaceous (ca. 100 Ma) Burmese amber of Myanmar. Two nymphs of Bothriocroton muelleri sp. nov. represent the oldest (and only) fossil record of this genus, living members of which are restricted to Australia and predominantly feed on monitor lizards, snakes and echidnas. A female of Archaeocroton kaufmani sp. nov. shares its basis capitulum shape with the tuatara tick Archaeocroton sphenodonti (Dumbleton, 1943), the only extant member of this genus and an endemic species for New Zealand. The presence of 2 Australasian genera in Burmese amber is consistent with a previous record of an Ixodes Latreille, 1795 tick from this deposit which resembles Australian members of this genus. They further support an emerging hypothesis that fauna of the amber forest, which may have been on an island at the time of deposition, was at least partly Gondwanan in origin. A revised evolutionary tree for Ixodida is presented compiling data from several new Burmese amber ticks described in the last few years.