This paper compares the results of 27Al nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and Al-K-edge X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) of natural imogolite and allophanes and some crystalline reference minerals. All soil allophanes studied contain 4-coordinated Al (AlIV). The highest relative proportion of AlIV, 21% of the total Al, was found in Si-rich allophane. This value is close to that found in spring allophanes, which were previously considered to be different from soil allophanes. For a quantitative determination of the AlIV/Altotal ratio, NMR is more reliable than XANES, because of the sensitivity of the chemical shift to low AlIV concentrations, but XANES may be used even if paramagnetic impurities (mostly Fe) are present. Al-K XANES also yields more information than NMR on the local environment of AlVI and especially site multiplicity. AlVI XANES of imogolite and allophanes are similar regardless of the Al/Si ratio. They yield two well-resolved resonances with maxima near 1568 and 1570 eV, which indicates the presence of a unique AlVI site by comparison with crystalline references. The presence of only one AlVI site indicates that imogolite and allophanes have an octahedral sheet with a structure similar to 2/1 dioctahedral phyllosilicates but different from gibbsite or kaolinite, previously considered as structural analogues. The 27AlIV MAS NMR peak maxima of allophanes are between 58.6 and 59.8 ppm, in the range observed for crystalline and amorphous framework alumino-silicates, and less positive than those of sheet silicates, which are typically in the range 65–75 ppm. 27Al-H1 CPMAS NMR spectra suggest that both AlIV and AlVI have Al-O-H linkages.

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia manifest as reduced motivation and pleasure (MAP) and impaired emotional expressivity (EXP). These can occur as primary phenomena, but have also been suggested to occur secondary to other clinical factors, including antipsychotic-induced sedation. However, this relationship has not been established formally. Here, we examined the effect of antipsychotic-induced sedation (assessed via the proxy of total daily sleep duration) on MAP and EXP in a cohort of 187 clozapine-treated patients with schizophrenia followed for over 2 years on average, using multilevel regression and mediation models. MAP, but not EXP, was adversely influenced by sedation, independently of the severity of psychosis or depression. Moreover, clozapine impaired MAP indirectly by worsening sedation, but after accounting for clozapine-induced sedation, clozapine improved MAP. Our results highlight the importance of addressing sedative side-effects of antipsychotics to improve clinical outcomes.

Air temperature lapse rates vary geographically and temporally. Sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island provides an opportunity to compare lapse rates between windward and leeward slopes in a hyper-oceanic climate. Lapse rates were steep by global standards, typically close to the dry adiabatic lapse rate despite the near-constant high humidity. Limited diurnal and seasonal variation occurs in lapse rates on Macquarie Island. High variability of lapse rates on the eastern (lee) slope in summer months and in the midday hours appears to be driven by solar radiation. No diurnal or seasonal pattern was evident on the western slope. Development of orographic cloud is expected to modify lapse rates, given the theoretical shift between dry and saturated adiabatic lapse rates that occurs with condensation of water vapour. Cloud cover was frequent, with higher elevations being under cloud 50% of the time, with no seasonal variation. However, cloud base level did not explain variation in lapse rates. Low cloud is likely to be of ecological importance because it influences fog precipitation, solar radiation and evapotranspiration. Year-round dominance of westerly airflows and limited seasonal variation in air temperature and humidity explain the limited seasonal variation in cloud cover and lapse rates on Macquarie Island.

Recent work has implicated one type of horizontal strabismus (exotropia) as a risk factor for schizophrenia. This new insight raises questions about a potential common developmental origin of the two diseases. Seasonality of births is well established for schizophrenia. Seasonal factors such as light exposure affect eye growth and can cause vision abnormalities, but little is known about seasonality of births in strabismus. We examined birth seasonality in people with horizontal strabismus in a retrospective study in Washoe County, Nevada, and re-examined similar previously obtained data from Osaka, Japan. We then compared seasonal patterns of births between strabismus, refractive error, schizophrenia and congenital toxoplasmosis. Patients with esotropia had a significant seasonality of births, with a deficit in March, then increasing to an excess in September, while patients with exotropia had a distinctly different pattern, with an excess of births in July, gradually decreasing to a deficit in November. These seasonalities were statistically significant with either χ2 or Kolmogorov–Smirnov-type statistics. The birth seasonality of esotropia resembled that for hyperopia, with an increase in amplitude, while the seasonality for myopia involved a phase-shift. There was no correlation between seasonality of births between strabismus and congenital toxoplasmosis. The pattern of an excess of summer births for people with exotropia was remarkably similar to the well-established birth seasonality of one schizophrenia subtype, the deficit syndrome, but not schizophrenia as a whole. This suggests a testable hypothesis: that exotropia may be a risk factor primarily for the deficit type of schizophrenia.

Financial incentives may aid in conservation if they broaden the numbers and types of landowners who engage in protection and conservation management on private land. We examined the hypotheses that financial incentives (1) encourage participation of people with lower autonomous motivation towards conservation and lower self-transcendence (i.e. benevolence and universalism) values compared to participants in similar programmes without such incentives; (2) enable more on-ground works and activities; and (3) enhance feelings of competence and autonomy with respect to conservation actions. We surveyed 193 landowners in private land conservation programmes in Tasmania, only some of whom had received financial incentives. All of these landowners had high self-transcendence values, and autonomous motivation towards the environment. Owners of large properties and participants with higher self-enhancement values, lower self-transcendence values and lower autonomous motivation towards the environment were slightly more likely to engage in incentive programmes. However, people who received funding did not report more conservation actions than people in programmes without incentives. Owners of larger properties receiving incentives reported fewer conservation actions. Thus financial incentives probably recruited a few into nature conservation who may not have otherwise engaged, but did not result in a more intensive level of conservation management. Our results caution against the blanket-use of incentives amongst landowners who may already have values and motivations consistent with environmental action, and point to the need for further research on the socio-psychological characteristics of landowners, to examine the contextual factors that influence the effects of conservation payments.

Simulation models are used widely in pharmacology, epidemiology and health economics (HEs). However, there have been no attempts to incorporate models from these disciplines into a single integrated model. Accordingly, we explored this linkage to evaluate the epidemiological and economic impact of oseltamivir dose optimisation in supporting pandemic influenza planning in the USA. An HE decision analytic model was linked to a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) – dynamic transmission model simulating the impact of pandemic influenza with low virulence and low transmissibility and, high virulence and high transmissibility. The cost-utility analysis was from the payer and societal perspectives, comparing oseltamivir 75 and 150 mg twice daily (BID) to no treatment over a 1-year time horizon. Model parameters were derived from published studies. Outcomes were measured as cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained. Sensitivity analyses were performed to examine the integrated model's robustness. Under both pandemic scenarios, compared to no treatment, the use of oseltamivir 75 or 150 mg BID led to a significant reduction of influenza episodes and influenza-related deaths, translating to substantial savings of QALYs. Overall drug costs were offset by the reduction of both direct and indirect costs, making these two interventions cost-saving from both perspectives. The results were sensitive to the proportion of inpatient presentation at the emergency visit and patients’ quality of life. Integrating PK/PD–EPI/HE models is achievable. Whilst further refinement of this novel linkage model to more closely mimic the reality is needed, the current study has generated useful insights to support influenza pandemic planning.

Patients with schizophrenia exhibit a reduced life expectancy. Although unhealthy lifestyle or suicide risk plays a role, the main causes are diverse medical conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. Albeit pharmacological secondary side effects might also trigger previous conditions, studies in naïve patients reflect diverse anomalies at the onset. Patients with a first episode of psychosis, display a wide scope of metabolic abnormalities, ranging from normality till pathological values depending on the parameters studied. We attempted to evaluate the metabolic syndrome and glycemic homeostasis in a subset of antipsychotic-naïve patients with a first episode of non-affective psychosis. Patients (n = 84) showed a similar prevalence of metabolic syndrome compared with a matched control sample (n = 98) (6% vs 4%, P = 0.562), while glucose homeostasis values differed significantly (14% vs. 5%, P = 0.034). Our results suggest that metabolic syndrome is not a useful clinical condition to be evaluated in patients before pharmacological treatment. Abnormal glycemic homeostasis at the onset of the disease requires specific diagnostic tools and preventive measures in order to avoid future cardiovascular events. New strategies must be implemented in order to evaluate the cardiovascular risk and subsequent morbidity in patients at the onset of the disease.

Poor management of the southeastern vegetable marketing cooperatives has been linked to poor record keeping practices. The VEGMARC II© Record Keeping Program is part of a comprehensive multi-agency effort to provide solutions to the problems of south-eastern vegetable marketing cooperatives. This computer program has been refined and expanded during four years of field testing. VEGMARC II© features include pool price calculations, deduction of packing fees, calculation of grower net returns, and the printing of reports, checks, and mailing labels. Eighty percent of cooperatives responding to user surveys indicated the program was meeting the needs of their cooperative.

How do varying levels of inter-group contact affect voter preferences in connection with ethnically radical political candidates and parties? Two competing hypotheses have emerged in the last 60 years: the first, known as the group threat hypothesis, argues that voters from an ethnic or religious group in more ethnically or racially heterogeneous districts will exhibit stronger preferences for ethnically radical political candidates. The contact hypothesis argues that groups living in mixed localities are actually less likely to support ethnic radicals. Both perspectives have found empirical support, but no previous study has offered a theoretical explanation for two seemingly contradictory conclusions. We specify just such a theory, arguing that the effect of district level integration is conditioned by the direction of a group’s share of the national population. We test this theory quantitatively using electoral data from Northern Ireland between 1983 and 2010.

We investigated the effects of host tree on epiphyte diversity, controlling for microclimate. We measured the light profiles of the lower trunks of 20 individuals, each from three host groups (tree ferns, dicots, palms) occupying the understorey in a tropical montane forest in Panama. The per cent cover and species richness of vascular and non-vascular epiphytes were surveyed on the lower trunks of each understorey host. Light varied considerably between trees (5–21% total transmitted light) but mean light level did not vary between types of host. Light was not significant as a covariate with host in any model. Tree ferns had higher covers than dicots and palms of filmy ferns (15%, 0.02% and 0.2%), other ferns (7%, 0% and 0.5%) and other vascular epiphytes (16%, 3% and 3.4%), and greater species richness of vascular epiphytes (filmy ferns: 3, 0.4 and 0.5; other ferns: 2, 0.2 and 0; other vascular: 7, 2 and 2). Dicots had a higher cover of liverworts (53%) than palms (18%) and tree ferns (27%). Palms and tree ferns were the compositional extremes. We conclude that the differences in species composition and cover between the three host groups relate better to physical differences between hosts than differences in light climate.

On the occasion of the 100th issue of English Today, scholars from around the world were invited to send their thoughts. Excerpts from messages received up to September 6th, 2009 are presented here.