All animals, through their behaviours, modify their habitats. However, except for ecosystem engineers, for most species we know little about these modifications and their ecological consequences. Here, we assessed whether mantled howler monkeys in Mexico, through group defecations under sleeping trees, create microhabitats in the understory through increased dung beetle and rodent activity. In defecation and control sites, we sampled dung beetles with pitfall traps and rodents with camera traps. We also used experimental stations to measure dung removal and secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles and seed predation/removal by rodents. Supporting our hypothesis, we found that defecation sites had higher abundance of beetles and prolonged rodent visitation after one day and higher seed predation/removal after seven days. However, we found no differences in dung removal or secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles between defecation and control sites. Finally, contrary to our prediction, defecation sites had fewer photo records of rodents than control sites. Overall, our study shows that monkey group defecations under sleeping trees can create short-term microhabitat heterogeneity, although not necessarily in the expected direction. The next step will be to determine whether such effects can have longer-term consequences for forest ecology, such as promoting plant species coexistence.

Mountain ungulates play an important role in ecosystems as primary consumers and as prey for rare predators. Monitoring their populations is therefore critical for conservation efforts. Within the 12 countries comprising the range of the snow leopard Panthera uncia, camera traps are routinely deployed to estimate numbers of this apex predator, providing an opportunity to also estimate numbers of their prey using bycatch data. However, the relative accuracy of the resulting prey density estimates compared to field surveys targeted specifically at prey species was unknown. We compared the performance of distance sampling based on camera-trap data with field surveys to estimate population densities of bharal Pseudois nayaur. We assessed estimates of bharal numbers from cameras placed to detect snow leopards (where ungulate captures presented bycatch data) against estimates from cameras placed specifically to detect bharal and then compared both with an independent estimate of bharal density from double-observer surveys and a total count of all bharal in the study area. The double-observer field surveys suggested a density of 1.94 bharal/km2, which was similar to the density derived from the total count (1.92 bharal/km2). By comparison, we estimated density to be 2.11 bharal/km2 from camera-based distance sampling and 0.35 bharal/km2 from cameras placed to detect snow leopards (bycatch data). The density estimate from the ungulate bycatch data was significantly lower than that from the double-observer field survey and from the total count. It was also less precise, more costly and more time-consuming to obtain. Our results caution against using bycatch data from surveys designed for predators to estimate ungulate prey densities and indicate that tailored survey methods are required.

Our research focused on the Critically Endangered Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla in the Siang River basin of Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India, home to the Indigenous Adi People. We found evidence of a resident Chinese pangolin population in the study area after assessing pangolin presence from walking surveys and camera trapping at pangolin burrows. We assessed the effectiveness of positioning camera traps based on the local knowledge of the Adi People. Camera-trap capture rates (5.1%) were comparable to or higher than those reported in other studies across Africa and Asia, highlighting the value of incorporating local ecological knowledge in camera-trap surveys. Our findings underscore the complementary nature of Indigenous knowledge and scientific methods, especially for elusive species such as pangolins.

We present a new camera-trap record of the Critically Endangered Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla in Vietnam, from a survey during January–November 2022 in Kon Ka Kinh National Park, Gia Lai Province. This record is c. 950 km south of the only other previous camera-trap records of the species in Vietnam. We obtained three camera-trap images of an individual M. pentadactyla at 1,600 m altitude, highlighting the potential importance of this Park for M. pentadactyla in Vietnam. We confirmed the identification through expert consultation and morphological analysis. This record suggests that the range of M. pentadactyla extends into central Vietnam. Further research and conservation efforts in Kon Ka Kinh National Park are required, to safeguard this enigmatic species and its habitat.

South of 25°N, the rugged, riparian, mixed evergreen forests of eastern Bangladesh mark the western edge of the ranges of the globally Vulnerable Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus and sun bear Helarctos malayanus. According to the IUCN Red List, the distribution of bears in Bangladesh is unclear: black bears are described as ‘scattered’ and ‘likely to be very low in number’ and sun bears as ‘vagrants’ entering from the adjoining north-east Indian forests. These statements are not based on any population or habitat assessments, impeding focused research and conservation investment. We compiled recent evidence of bear presence in Bangladesh based on camera trapping, literature reviews and analysis of media reports. From peer-reviewed and grey literature published during 2010–2022 we traced 43 verifiable accounts of black bears in the country. Our camera-trap survey in Rajkandi Reserve Forest produced the first ever evidence of a small population of black bears in north-eastern Bangladesh. Two field studies (in 2016 and 2021) reported camera-trap observations and multiple incidents of poaching of sun bears in Kassalong Reserve Forest and Sangu-Matamuhuri Reserve Forest in south-eastern Bangladesh. Media reports on conflict incidents presented 83 human casualties (80 injured, three dead) and 13 bear casualties (six dead, seven rescued) during 2003–2023. The incidents peaked in the summer (17); 79% were reported during 2018–2023. Cognizant of the fact that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, our study calls for systematic conservation measures for both of these bear species in unprotected hill forests in eastern Bangladesh.

The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr was believed to be absent from the Nejd region in Dhofar Governorate, Oman. However, a scat confirmed by DNA analysis in 2011 and camera-trap images from 2014 confirmed the presence of the leopard in this region. During 2014–2021, our camera traps documented at least eight individual leopards, demonstrating the species is resident and breeding in the region. This finding extends the Arabian leopard's known range in Oman by c. 40 km northwards. To improve detection probability, we recommend that camera-trap surveys for the leopard in the Arabian Peninsula are of at least 18 weeks duration. We advocate the designation of central and western areas of the Nejd as a National Nature Reserve, to protect critical habitat for the Arabian leopard and for other species in this region.

Transfrontier conservation landscapes, such as the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TCA) in southern Africa, play a crucial role in preserving global biodiversity and promoting the sustainable development of local communities. However, resources to facilitate management could become scarce across large areas, leading to difficulties in obtaining baseline ecological information. Consequently, in the absence of sustainable management vast landscapes may experience loss of wildlife species, which could destabilize ecosystems. This effect is particularly significant if the loss involves top predators. Hence, understanding carnivore distributions is critical to informing management. We conducted a mammal survey in the Ondjou Conservancy in Namibia, an 8,729 km2 understudied area in the south-west of the KAZA TCA. We analysed camera-trapping data from a 2,304 km2 grid and identified high carnivore richness (18 species) despite widespread human activity and prey depletion. Using a multi-species occupancy framework we found that carnivore occurrence increased with increasing distance from the main village and with closer proximity to the Nyae Nyae Conservancy neighbouring the KAZA TCA, which has large and diverse carnivore populations. Carnivore occurrence was higher when local prey richness was high. The Ondjou Conservancy could function as an important buffer for the larger conservation network, yet rural communities in this area require support for fostering human–wildlife coexistence. Additionally, restoring the natural prey base will be critical to ensuring the long-term viability of carnivore populations in this and other human-impacted landscapes. With many remote areas of transfrontier conservation landscapes being understudied, our findings illustrate the conservation potential of such areas within large-scale conservation networks.

The Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List but little is known about its status in Nepal. Although indirect sign surveys have reported its presence in several community forests in Kavrepalanchok district, no photographic or video evidence has previously been documented. We used camera traps to investigate the occurrence of pangolins in 20 community forests in Panauti Municipality in Kavrepalanchok. A total of 75 0.01 km2 plots were surveyed using camera traps during September 2022–February 2023, with a total survey effort of 803 trap-days. The cameras recorded a total of 16 individual video footage events of Chinese pangolins in six of the community forests. This is the first camera-trap evidence of the species' presence in these forest patches, and in Kavrepalanchok district. The pangolins displayed behaviours such as sniffing, gathering plant material and digging, between 18.00 and 1.00. The camera-trap records provide more accurate species identification and reliable information than indirect sign surveys, indicating camera traps are a useful surveying tool for rare, nocturnal and elusive pangolins.

In the current IUCN Red List assessment, the south-western distribution range of the brown bear Ursus arctos in Nepal ends in Upper Mustang, in the central Himalaya, and extends northwards into the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. Although brown bears have been recorded further west of Upper Mustang, details of these findings have not been published previously. Using camera traps, we present new evidence of brown bears in Limi Valley, Upper Humla, north-western Nepal. Covering a study area of 336 km2, we deployed 61 camera traps for 3,145 trap-nights during July–October 2021 and 10,748 trap-nights during June 2022–October 2023. In 2021 we recorded a single independent image of a brown bear, followed by 23 independent images during 2022–2023. The images were captured during spring and autumn but not in summer and winter. These new records increase the distribution range of the brown bear in Nepal, extending its global range south-westwards. Our results indicate the significance of Limi Valley as a stronghold for brown bears in Nepal and underscore the importance of formally protecting the currently unprotected wildlife habitats in Limi Valley. Our study emphasizes the need for further research into the ecology and population status of brown bears in Nepal.

Surveys targeting flagship species frequently record the presence of other species, providing valuable bycatch data to fill knowledge gaps on the ecology of overlooked species. Using bycatch records from camera-trap surveys for the tiger Panthera tigris, we model occupancy of the sun bear Helarctos malayanus, predict its temporal change in occupancy during 2015–2019 and determine its activity patterns in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Sumatra, Indonesia. We performed single-season occupancy modelling that considered unequal detection probability from sun bear detection/non-detection records. We found that the sun bear occupancy in the Intensive Protection Zone (i.e. the priority protection area) of the National Park was slightly higher than in the north of the National Park. In the Intensive Protection Zone, sun bear occupancy was estimated to be 0.67 in 2015 and increased to 0.83 in 2019, but this increase was not substantial. The sun bear exhibited a cathemeral activity pattern. Most activity occurred during the day (46.2%), followed by night (21.2%), dusk (20.9%) and dawn (11.7%). We encourage collaboration amongst institutions conducting camera-trap studies in Sumatra to examine the ecology of other threatened yet overlooked species, to assess the broader biodiversity benefits of flagship species conservation and to strengthen science-based conservation efforts.

The Fingui white-toothed shrew Crocidura fingui, categorized as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List, is endemic to Príncipe Island, Central Africa. It is currently known from < 10 sites and its ecology and any threats are largely unknown. We review its distribution and ecology, and any potential threats, based on camera-trap data, field observations and previously published and unpublished sightings. Crocidura fingui appears to have an island-wide distribution and to use a range of ecosystems, from native forests to urban areas. It is largely nocturnal and exhibits considerable spatiotemporal overlap with introduced mammals such as the African civet Civettictis civetta, domestic cat Felis catus and rats Rattus spp. The species has an area of occupancy < 500 km2 and is known from fewer than five locations, and its population is inferred to be affected by several introduced mammals. We recommend that it is recategorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

The Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr is categorized as Critically Endangered, with < 200 individuals estimated to remain in the wild. Historically the species ranged over an extensive area of western Saudi Arabia but, with no confirmed sightings since 2014, investigating potential continued presence and distribution is of critical conservation importance. We present the results of a comprehensive survey designed to detect any remaining Arabian leopard populations in Saudi Arabia. We conducted 14 surveys, deploying 586 camera-trap stations at 13 sites, totalling 82,075 trap-nights. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 843 members of local communities across the Arabian leopard's historical range to assess the presence of leopards, other predators and prey species. Predator scats were collected ad hoc by field teams and we used mitochondrial DNA analysis to identify the originating species. We obtained 62,948 independent photographs of animals and people, but none were of Arabian leopards. Other carnivores appeared widespread and domestic animals were numerous, but wild prey were comparatively scarce. Three questionnaire respondents reported sightings of leopards within the previous year, but targeted camera-trap surveys in these areas did not yield evidence of leopards. Of the 143 scats sent for analysis, no DNA was conclusively identified as that of the leopard. From this extensive study, we conclude there are probably no surviving, sustainable populations of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia. Individual leopards might be present but were not confirmed. Any future Arabian leopard conservation in Saudi Arabia will probably require reintroduction of captive-bred leopards.

Conservation monitoring is paramount for the gathering of information on species and populations in need of conservation actions. However, monitoring of the mountain bongo Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci, a Critically Endangered antelope endemic to Kenya, has hitherto been limited to surveillance (i.e. focused on persistence of the species in particular areas), thus limiting the information that could be retrieved on the status and trends of these populations. Using a newly developed identification system, we implemented robust design mark–recapture using existing camera-trap records of four wild subpopulations of the bongo. We provide data on sex and age structure and the first estimates of population size in the wild. Males and calves seem to be suffering higher mortality than females, and only two of the four monitored populations include adults of both sexes and calves. The combined size of these two breeding populations is estimated to be 29–50. Our findings confirm the critical situation of the mountain bongo in the wild and highlight the need for conservation actions to reinforce the wild populations for the long-term conservation of this antelope.

The Helan Shan pika Ochotona argentata is an Endangered pika endemic to Ningxia Helan Shan National Nature Reserve in China. Little is known about the species, including regarding its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and even basic natural history. We conducted camera trapping in the Reserve during 13 January 2020–25 January 2022 and obtained two new records for this species. These, combined with five other new records obtained during the monitoring programme in the Reserve, represent a significant increase in the known range of the species and more than double the species’ known extent of occurrence from 107 to 223 km2. These records also provide the first evidence that this species is active both nocturnally and diurnally. However, this range increase does not alter the Endangered status of the pika, and the pika was not observed within its previously known range; future research should involve intensive camera trapping in the Reserve to ascertain whether this is a result of local extirpation, habitat loss or fragmentation or under-sampling on our part. Studies should also incorporate techniques used for other alpine pika species to collect baseline data on habitat use, population size and behaviour to determine the potential response of the Helan Shan pika to present and future threats.

Information on pangolin life history and ecology is becoming increasingly available in African countries through community-based surveys and camera-trapping. However, there is a paucity of information on the largely arboreal black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla, which is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. By targeting fallen trees or logs with camera traps we recorded the black-bellied pangolin opportunistically in Deng Deng National Park (East Region, Cameroon), a locality within the presumed distribution of the species within Cameroon. We obtained a low trapping rate of 0.063 events per 100 trap-days and the capture probability was one event recorded over 1,571 trap-days (0.0006 captures per day). Deploying camera traps that focus on fallen trees or logs could be explored as a method for detecting black-bellied pangolins.

Species–environment relationships are often studied at large spatial scales, but effective conservation requires an understanding of local-scale environmental drivers and pressures. Widespread degradation and fragmentation of forests have increased the proportion of tropical mammal habitat that is affected by edge effects. Edge effects include greater exposure to anthropogenic disturbance and abiotic changes that synergistically influence how well populations can cope with climate change. We investigated relationships between distance to the forest edge, forest structure, microclimate and terrestrial mammal detections in a selectively logged forest at the boundary of Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra, Indonesia. We collected mammal detection data from motion-activated camera traps, microclimate data from automated climate data loggers and forest structure data from vegetation plots. Daily mean and maximum temperatures significantly decreased with distance from the forest edge, whereas tree height and minimum temperature increased. Mammal diversity was lower at the forest edge compared to the interior. Mammals were detected less frequently at the forest edge, although this relationship varied between mammal orders. Mammal detections were best explained by temperature, tree height and tree diameter at breast height. These results demonstrate that abiotic changes in forests brought on by edge effects have negative impacts on mammals, but these effects vary between mammal taxa because of differing sensitivities to human disturbance. Our findings highlight the importance of considering local-scale environmental drivers in determining species–environment relationships to identify key habitat features such as microclimate refuges that should be prioritized in ecosystem management.

The persistence of seed-dispersing animals in degraded habitats could be critical for ensuring the long-term conservation value and restoration of forests. This is particularly important in Southeast Asia, where > 70% of the remaining forest areas are within 1 km of a forest edge, and many are degraded (e.g. logged). We synthesized information on the habitat associations of the binturong Arctictis binturong, a large, semi-arboreal, frugivorous civet and one of the most important seed dispersers in the region, especially for figs (Ficus spp). We adopted a multiscale approach by employing ensemble species distribution modelling from presence-only records, assessing landscape-scale variation in detection rates in published camera-trap studies and using hierarchical occupancy modelling to assess local (i.e. within-landscape) patterns observed from 20 new camera-trap surveys. Contrary to prior reports that binturongs are strongly associated with intact forests, the species was equally present in degraded forests and near forest edges where sufficient forest cover was maintained (> 40% forest cover within a 20-km radius). The species also tolerates moderate incursions of oil palm plantations (< 20% of the area within a 20-km radius covered by oil palm plantations). The relative resilience of binturongs to habitat degradation could be in part because of behavioural adaptations towards increased nocturnal activity. These results support the notion that key seed dispersers can persist and maintain their ecological function in degraded forests.

The Endangered giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is rare and elusive across its Central African range. Because of its solitary and nocturnal nature, the species is difficult to study and so its ecology is little known. Pangolins are considered the most trafficked mammals in the world. Therefore, confirming presence accurately and monitoring trends in distribution and abundance are essential to inform and prioritize conservation efforts. Camera traps are popular tools for surveying rare and cryptic species. However, non-targeted camera-trap surveys yield low camera-trapping rates for pangolins. Here we use camera-trap data from surveys conducted within three protected areas in Uganda to test whether targeted placement of cameras improves giant pangolin detection probability in occupancy models. The results indicate that giant pangolin detection probability is highest when camera traps are targeted on burrows. The median number of days from camera deployment to first giant pangolin detection event was 12, with the majority of events captured within 32 days from deployment. The median interval between giant pangolin events at a camera-trap site was 33 days. We demonstrate that camera-trap surveys can be designed to improve the detection of giant pangolins and we outline a set of recommendations to maximize the effectiveness of efforts to survey and monitor the species.

The Tanintharyi Region in southern Myanmar is rich in biodiversity yet is facing threats from varying degrees of anthropogenic pressure. In this research we examine how anthropogenic pressures are influencing large carnivores (tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus) and their major prey species (wild pig Sus scrofa, muntjac Muntiacus spp., sambar Rusa unicolor, gaur Bos gaurus and banteng Bos javanicus) in the Lenya Reserved Forest and adjacent areas of Sundaic forest. We used data from camera-trap surveys during May 2016–March 2018 and logistic regression to analyse the relationships between the presence of large carnivores and explanatory variables such as human disturbance, landscape variability and changes in prey distribution. Tiger presence was positively associated with the occurrence of gaur and distance to villages. The occurrence of prey did not explain the detection of leopards in the study area. We suspect this was because leopards have a broad diet, including arboreal primates, and their prey was not fully recorded in our camera-trap survey. Dholes were positively associated with wild pigs and the total number of prey but not associated with forest type and landscape variables. To restore the carnivore population and conserve the biodiversity of this area, effective protection of predators and habitat management for large ungulates are crucial.

Urbanization of natural landscapes and increasing human populations have brought people and our companion animals into closer contact with wildlife, even within protected areas. To provide guidance for human–wildlife coexistence, it is therefore critical to understand the effects of anthropogenic disturbances and how well native wildlife species survive in human-dominated landscapes. We investigated the spatio-temporal responses of 10 vertebrate taxa, with an emphasis on the Endangered Eld's deer Rucervus eldii thamin, to anthropogenic disturbances in Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar. We quantified anthropogenic disturbances as distance from human settlements, distance from a highway, and the presence of people and free-ranging dogs Canis familiaris. Anthropogenic disturbances had stronger negative impacts on the detection of native wildlife species than on occupancy. Eld's deer avoided areas close to human settlements and showed low diel activity overlap with both people and dogs, although we found a positive association with human presence at the camera-trap sites. Five species exhibited lower diel activity overlap with people in the rainy season when human activity is the highest in our study area. All studied wildlife species shifted to nocturnal activity or did not show any clear activity pattern during the cool-dry season when the presence of dogs increased. The ecological and conservation impacts of dogs are underestimated in South-east Asia, particularly in Myanmar, and this case study highlights the impacts of dogs on the temporal use of habitat by wildlife and the need for better practices in the management of dogs within protected areas.