Numerous normal anatomical variants in the pediatric skeleton can be mistaken for fracture. It is important to be aware of variants to provide accurate diagnosis and avoid potential false interpretations of possible abuse.

Along the long bone diaphysis, in infants 1–4 months of age, smooth and thin periosteal new bone formation may be physiologic and not indicative of healing fracture. At the metaphyses in the growing skeleton, the subperiosteal bone collar is an osseous ring surrounding the metaphysis adjacent to the physis. It is responsible for variants in metaphyseal morphology, including beaking, step-offs and spurs, which can be mistaken for the classic metaphyseal lesion often associated with child abuse.

Variant ossification patterns at the acromion and pelvis, if unrecognized, can lead to concern for fracture. In addition, congenital abnormalities of the ribs and clavicles, including fusion anomalies and pseudarthroses, can simulate chronic, healing fracture.

This chapter reviews these and other developmental variants, and describes how to differentiate them from true fractures. Artifacts simulating fractures are briefly covered.

The function, composition and processes underlying the formation and maturation of the skeleton, bone the organ and bone the tissue, are the focus of this chapter. Knowledge of the immature infant skeleton and its inherent weaknesses and susceptibility to physical injury, facilitates understanding the morphologic manifestations of bone injury and the body’s response to associated tissue damage. The skeleton is a complex structure that plays a variety of different roles crucial to life. It is composed of many individual bones that are constructed of proteins, minerals and the cells specific to bone, namely, the families of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Bones form through enchondral and intramembranous ossification, and these processes are complex and tightly regulated by molecular genetics and cell-signaling pathways. Understanding the structure of the skeleton and its growth and development provides the foundation to understand its susceptibility to trauma and the pathology induced by injury and tissue damage.

Elizabeth Bowen’s fiction is full of girls; in nearly all her work, she focuses on the act of maturing through adolescence to early adulthood. The experience of girlhood among Bowen’s characters maps onto the generic characteristics of her truncated, ambiguous Bildungsromane, all of which subvert expectations and resist satisfying maturation. Her novels focus on figures experiencing historical and emotional arrest, and her adolescent girls often remain in moments of developmental or social suspension. This essay traces girlhood and adolescence in abeyance in Bowen’s short fiction, and in novels ranging from The Hotel to The Death of the Heart to The Little Girls.

Humans and other animals with a big X and a small gene-poor Y chromosome share the problem that many X-borne genes are present in two copies in females and a single copy in males. In mammals, compensation for this different gene dosage is accomplished by inactivation of one X in the somatic cells of females. Discovered by Mary Lyon in 1961, X chromosome inactivation involves the silencing of a thousand unrelated but physically linked genes on one X. It is a whole-X event, involving major cytological changes, including late DNA replication and visibly different compaction into ‘sex chromatin’. Some genes on the X (many in humans, few in mice) escape inactivation. Inactivation is a stable change, inherited by somatic cells but reversed in germ cells, and seems to be controlled from an inactivation centre that can be mapped on the X. X inactivation occurs in the embryo, silencing one or other X at random, but imprinted X inactivation of the paternally derived X occurs at early developmental stages in mice, and at all stages in marsupials. X inactivation is a spectacular example of ‘epigenetic’ silencing on a grand scale, and is intensively studied in humans and mice, and modelled in stem cells.

The European mandatory bid rule (‘MBR’) was a key factor in the controversy surrounding the legislative proceedings concerning the Takeover Directive (‘TOD’). The MBR has had an eventful history, characterised by political compromises, the active influencing of legislative procedures (regulatory capture) and ongoing controversies about the economic rationale of the MBR. This chapter traces the history of the MBR and its development. Additionally, it highlights the crucial issues that led to the enactment of the MBR and ultimately the adoption of the TOD. The core thesis is that the changing mood in the Member States was primarily responsible for the shift in opinion that created the potential for the introduction of the MBR at a European Union Level in the first place. However, the influence of the MBR on the capital markets of the Member States has been limited. The TOD has failed to achieve its regulatory objective at any rate. The assessment may only be different for smaller Member States without a long tradition of takeover law and/or strong capital markets. In these countries, for example Poland, the MBR might have had a greater influence.

There has been a growing body of research examining the longitudinal course of couple relationships. In this chapter, our goal is to synthesize and critically evaluate the research on long-term couple relationships, highlighting what we have learned and the advances that have been made to earlier work, while being inclusive of a variety of methodological and analytical approaches. We discuss early studies on long-term relationships; research assessing the different pathways of development as well as the antecedents, correlates and outcomes of various patterns of change; and the crucial role of self-help advice and intervention/prevention programs for fostering long-term couple relationships. We argue that although there has been progress in this area, the research still lacks much-needed diversity, and we consider broader limitations and directions for future research.

During the 1960s and 1970s the economic nationalism that had accompanied the growth of foreign direct investment in Latin America evolved into academic theories of dependency. This stimulated increased questioning of the role that multinationals played in the region, the introduction of policies to regulate their activities, and, at times, nationalization. This chapter examines the social consequences of foreign direct investment in resource extraction and in manufacturing. Foreign companies appeared to have gained much more from exploiting Latin American resources than local societies, which had experienced significant social and environmental harm. The balance sheet for foreign direct investment in manufacturing was more complex. It stimulated positive changes in consumption patterns and employment. However, multinationals also displaced local entrepreneurs, and they largely ignored their impact on public health and the environment. These issues remain salient in the first decades of the twenty-first century, especially with the resurgence of multinational investment in extractive activities and grassroots opposition to it.

The ‘logic’ of charity in modern Britain has been understood as ‘complex’ and ‘varied’: ‘a loose and baggy monster’. Charity after Empire takes this complexity as the basis for a new interpretation. First, the indeterminacy of the role and function of charity lay behind its popularity and growth. With no fixed notions of what they should be or what they should do, charities and NGOs have expanded because they have been many things to many people. Second, the messy practices of aid meant success could always be claimed amidst uncertain objectives and outcomes, triggering further expansion. Third, just as charity was welcomed as a solution to poverty overseas, its scope and potential were contained by powerful political actors who restricted its campaigning and advocacy work. Fourth, racial injustice, especially apartheid, shaped not only humanitarianism overseas but also the domestic governance of charity in Britain. It all resulted not only in the massive expansion of charity but also limitations placed on its role and remit.

In this concluding chapter we consider our results in the larger frameworks of multilingualism and language change and show that these areas cohere. We consult an ongoing program of study of the acquisition of multilingualism and report results documenting both structural constraint on the multilingual course of acquisition of relativization and the integration of principles of language-specific grammar. The results reported in this book reflect general properties of language acquisition and are not limited to the child or to monolingual contexts alone. We relate our results regarding the nature of language change in acquisition to that of language change in historical contexts and argue that a gradual integration of linguistic knowledge culminates in the creation of a linguistic system over time in both contexts. Finally, we consult a more refined notion of “recursion,” and in keeping with recent theoretical developments in the implementation of recursion in Universal Grammar, we reject a claim that the developmental results in this book reflect an absence of recursion in early child language. We describe the implications of our results on the acquisition of relativization for our understanding of the Language Faculty in the human species.

This chapter analyzes the role of multinational enterprises in driving both globalization and deglobalization waves historically. Emerging from industrialized Western economies, multinationals played a key role in expanding global capitalism after 1840 by transferring financial, organizational, and cultural assets across borders. They took various forms and proved highly resilient, withstanding shifts in policy regimes and often reinforcing rather than disrupting institutional and societal norms that restricted growth outside the West. Their ability, and motivation, to locate value-added activities in the most attractive locations means that they have often strengthened clustering and reinforced gaps in wealth and income. The most successful non-Western economies since the 1960s – Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and later China – limited foreign multinationals or required technology transfers to local firms. Multinationals frequently contributed to global challenges rather than solving them, yet their overall impact was a complex mix of positive and negative factors.

Chapter 1 explores travel writing about Wales to show how, as Britishness became an increasingly important cultural category, so too did written accounts of “ancient Britain” become more invested in representing Wales not only as beautiful, but also as infinitely productive. Early and mid-century writers like Daniel Defoe and Samuel Johnson cast Wales as sublimely foreboding and suffused with a masculine classical cultural heritage, but later writers reimagined the country as exemplifying a timeless and quintessentially British type of beauty: namely, the aesthetic they named the picturesque. Later, Welsh writers like Richard Llwyd drew attention to the erasures and contradictions inherent to picturesque view-making, articulating an incipient critique of imperialist landscape aesthetics.