Frameworks are widespread in developmental psychology. They provide general ideas about what to study in human development: which concepts to focus on (e.g., systems, timescales), which processes to test (e.g., micro–macro, bidirectional), and which methods to use (e.g., interview, dynamical equations). However, despite their prominence, there exists very little consensus or guidance on how to use frameworks in research. As such, they have an obscure role, influencing our research questions, methods, and theory, but often in ways we cannot articulate for ourselves, let alone for others. This Views paper presents our perspective on how different frameworks can inform the assumptions, targets, goals, context, timing, and methods of a research project. As an illustrative example, we use Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological framework to inform research investigating how parent–child relationships shape the development of executive self-regulation. We also show how different frameworks relevant to developmental psychopathology can inform a research project in distinct ways. Thus, this Views paper provides a practical guide for developmental researchers to more explicitly use and benefit from frameworks in their research.

In the decades since Nolen-Hoeksema’s (1991) original work on response styles, research on rumination has flourished within psychological science. This literature often emphasizes the association of impaired problem-solving with rumination. Spikes in the prevalence of rumination coincide with the entry into adolescence, as youth become increasingly sensitive to social feedback and interpersonal relationships. This article introduces the idea that rumination represents a socially reinforced process in adolescent girls, who are particularly likely to engage in rumination and to find interpersonal stress aversive. In the event that relationships evoke distress, girls may be able to generate solutions through ruminative coping; however, they are unwilling to accept and enact these solutions when these solutions have the potential to be further socially disruptive. Although ruminative inaction may have grave consequences for the moods of youth, it maintains an interpersonal harmony that some youth may prioritize and, in the process, avoids changing a social milieu, angering or displeasing others, or generating unwanted social controversy or conflict. This serves as reinforcement for ruminative coping, creating the risk that rumination will become an entrenched habit with the potential to further erode mood over time.

This study examined longitudinal associations between maternal mindful parenting and child social–emotional, behavioral, and language development. Maternal mindful parenting at 18 months was tested for associations with concurrent observed maternal responsivity and lack of punishment toward the child and as a predictor of child internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, social competence and productive language 6 months later, independent of maternal depressive symptoms (a known predictor of both parenting and child outcomes). We also tested whether child negative emotionality (NE) moderated associations between mindful parenting and child outcomes. Participants (N = 316 mothers) were low-income (mean annual income = $19,024), racially and ethnically diverse mothers (48.4% Black; 43.0% Latinx) recruited from Pittsburgh, PA and New York City, NY. Higher mindful parenting was concurrently associated with higher observed maternal responsiveness toward the child and longitudinally associated with all four child outcomes in expected directions; maternal depression was a significant predictor of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Contrary to hypotheses, at moderately high levels of child NE, the positive effects of mindful parenting on child outcomes were attenuated. Results provide preliminary evidence that mindful parenting is meaningfully associated with parenting behaviors and early childhood developmental outcomes above and beyond symptoms of maternal depression.

Guided by steeling and hormesis models, this paper examined parenting adversity as a quadratic predictor of children’s emotion knowledge and effortful control and, in turn, their internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Participants were 238 mothers, partners, and their preschool children (Mage = 4.38 years; 52% female). Multiple methods (i.e., observations, interviews, surveys, q-sorts) and informants (i.e., trained observers, experimenters, mothers, children, teachers) were used in a longitudinal design with three annual measurement occasions. Supporting the first link in the mediational cascade, lagged, autoregressive analyses indicated that a quadratic composite of parenting adversity derived from trained observer ratings of parenting at Wave 1 was a significant predictor of children’s emotion knowledge and effortful control at Wave 2. In the second part of the proposed cascade, children’s Wave 2 emotion knowledge predicted lower levels of their Wave 3 internalizing symptoms, while their Wave 2 effortful control predicted lower levels of their Wave 3 externalizing symptoms. Consistent with steeling effects, curvilinear findings in the first part of the cascade indicated that moderate levels of exposure to parenting adversity predicted the highest levels of children’s subsequent emotion knowledge and effortful control. Children also exhibited substantially diminished emotion knowledge and effortful control as their exposure to family adversity increased from moderate to high levels.

The present study examined developmental pathways beginning in pregnancy and extending into early childhood that contribute to child emotion regulation (ER). Leveraging data from a sample of 157 mixed-sex couples, who largely identified as White and non-Hispanic/Latino, and their typically developing children (50.3% female), we examined whether parental emotion-related socialization behaviors (ERSBs; i.e., general emotion talk, specific supportive and nonsupportive responses to children’s negative emotions) at preschool age (child age 3) mediated the link between parental trauma-related distress spanning pregnancy to toddler age (2-years postpartum) and child maladaptive ER at the transition to formal schooling (age 5). Chronic elevations in maternal trauma-related distress contributed directly and indirectly to child maladaptive ER at age 5, and maternal nonsupportive responses emerged as a potential pathway driving the intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation. In contrast, paternal trauma-related distress neither undermined ERSBs nor contributed to child maladaptive ER. Instead, chronic elevations in paternal trauma-related distress predicted more supportive responses to children’s negative emotions. Results highlight the utility of repeated screening for trauma-related distress and prevention and early intervention efforts targeting parental trauma-related distress and nonsupportive responses to children’s negative emotions. These strategies may help promote adaptive ER at school entry and reduce risk for later psychopathology.

Executive attention, an underlying mechanisms enabling self-regulation, can be behaviorally indicated by post-error slowing (PES) – a delay in reaction time following an error. PES develops during early childhood – plausibly shaped by genetic and environmental factors. We tested whether mothers’ and children’s PES predicted their post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms during a real-life stressful situation, and how each one’s PTSD symptoms moderated the other’s. Ninety-five kindergarten-aged children and mother pairs participated. In T1, participants’ PES was measured during a laboratory task. About 1.5 years afterwards, six months after a national traumatic event, mothers reported their own and their child’s PTSD symptoms (T2). Key findings show that for mothers with high PTSD symptoms, children with more developed PES at T1 showed less PTSD symptoms at T2. In contrast, for mothers with low PTSD symptoms, children’s PES was unrelated to their PTSD symptoms. For mothers of children with high PTSD symptoms, those with less developed PES at T1 showed high PTSD symptoms at T2. Mothers of children with low symptoms showed no such relation. The models explained 61.1% of children’s and 51% of mothers’ PTSD symptoms. These findings provide evidence for the protective effect of self-regulation against PTSD, and the mutual dyadic moderating effects of its manifestation.

Childhood adversity is associated with increased engagement in health risk behaviors (HRBs), such as substance use, violence, and risky sexual behaviors during adolescence, which contribute to leading causes of death and disability throughout the lifespan. Threat and deprivation are two dimensions of adversity that impact health and wellbeing through partially distinct developmental pathways, but no studies have examined if and how HRBs differ by adversity dimension. This pre-registered network analysis examined the independent associations between threat, deprivation, and adolescent HRBs using data from the 2023 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. We hypothesized that both adversity dimensions would be associated with HRBs, with stronger associations for threat compared to deprivation. Participants were U.S. high school students (N = 7,691; 52% male, 48% female). Forty-six percent were white, 26% multiple races, 12% Black, 7% American Indian/Alaska Native, 4% Asian, < 1% Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and 20% Hispanic. Consistent with our hypotheses, network structures revealed that both threat and deprivation were associated with HRBs, the patterns of such associations varied by dimension, and the overall strength and number of HRB associations was greater for threat. Findings support the utility of dimensional models in linking childhood adversity to adolescent HRBs, with implications for research and clinical practice.

Some individuals may compensate for their underlying social cognitive vulnerabilities, therefore exhibiting adaptive real-world social behavior through enhanced attentional mechanisms despite underlying social cognitive challenges. From a developmental psychopathology framework, adaptive behaviors vary dimensionally in the community and across development to promote compensation. Yet, compensation in the broader community of children without categorical clinical diagnoses has not yet been studied. Moreover, the extent to which compensation demonstrates stability versus change is unknown. This study examines childhood social compensation longitudinally in a community-ascertained sample (N = 315) of 7–17 year-old (M = 12.15, SD = 2.97) children (33% non-white, 44% female). Compared to children with equally poor emotion recognition but substantially more real-world social behavior challenges, high compensators demonstrated better attentional alerting (d = 0.81, p < 0.001) without the “cost” of internalizing symptoms. Results showed both stability and instability in compensation group membership over time, with the high compensation group more likely to have unstable classification relative to the no compensation group (OR = 0.26, p = 0.001). Taken together, this study clarifies the processes underlying social compensation in the community and suggests a developmental psychopathology perspective is valuable in understanding how compensation develops across the lifespan. Such work has the potential to inform practices and policies that support social adaptation and promote resilience.

Treatment response in pediatric social anxiety disorder (SAD) is highly variable, and symptoms may be maintained by maladaptive attention. A previous study found that youth with SAD scan a more restricted area of faces than healthy controls during emotion recognition, potentially limiting interpretation of social cues. The current study followed up on these results by examining whether restricted face scanning 1) predicts response to psychological treatment, and 2) changes with successful treatment. Youth with SAD (n = 59) were assessed prior to treatment with internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy (ICBT) or supportive therapy (ISUPPORT) and then again three months after treatment. Restricted scanning of faces predicted a smaller symptom reduction, independent of treatment arm. Scanpath distribution was moderately stable from T1 to T2 and did not change with treatment. Restricted scanning of faces may be a risk factor for sustained SAD symptoms after therapy. As the visual scanpath is a key aspect of human visual processing, inflexible scanning could potentially interfere with information processing. Implications for theories of attention in pediatric SAD are discussed.

Caregiver sensitivity to infant cues is well-established as a predictor of child development. Infants also actively influence their social environment, especially their caregivers, even from their earliest days. Sensory reactivity, characterized as hypo- (under) and hyper- (over) responding to environmental stimuli, is one domain of development that is likely to influence caregiver-infant interaction, due to its role in regulating emotions and responses to both physical and social stimuli. Although sensory reactivity could be an important target for improving caregiver-child interaction, the longitudinal, reciprocal relations between infant sensory reactivity and caregiver behaviors are currently unknown. In the present proof-of-concept study, we examined these associations in a community sample of mother-infant dyads (N = 252) at infant ages 6 and 12 months using a cross-lagged panel modeling approach. Preliminary findings, which will benefit from replication using a validated measure of sensory reactivity, indicated that maternal sensitivity may decrease infant hyperreactivity, and infant hyporeactivity may be associated with increases in maternal sensitivity. Maternal intrusiveness appears to exacerbate infant hyperreactivity over time and attenuate later infant hyporeactivity. The results of this study provide preliminary evidence for the mutually influential nature of infant sensory reactivity and maternal behavior and signals the importance of future investigation of these concepts.

This study addressed the prevalence of resilience within specific domains (domain-specific resilience) and across multiple domains (multidomain resilience), as well as the predictive value of resilience for long-term outcomes. Using data from 244 parentally bereaved youth ages 8 – 16 who completed multiple assessments over 15 years in a randomized preventive intervention trial, we examined resilience trajectories across 10 outcomes in five domains on which bereaved youth are at risk, assessed over 14 months. Resilience was defined as low, stable problems or high, stable competencies across assessments; and multidomain resilience as the number of outcomes on which there were resilient trajectories. Results showed that resilience was generally common within specific domains, though its prevalence varied across multiple domains. Multidomain resilience followed a near-normal distribution, with few people having no domain on which they are resilient or being resilient across all domains. Several domain-specific resilience trajectories and multidomain resilience predicted multiple outcomes 15 years after baseline.

The study is the first to examine the effects of children’s and therapists’ in-session behaviors on later therapeutic alliance (TA; i.e., relational bond, task collaboration) as rated by children and therapists in an intervention for children with aggressive behavior. One hundred eighty children (ages 9.3–11.8; 69% male; 78% Black), screened as having aggressive behavior by teacher and parent ratings, received a 32-session group-based cognitive-behavioral intervention (Coping Power) at their schools. TA ratings were collected from children and therapists at mid- and end-of-intervention using the Therapeutic Alliance Scale for Children. Children’s and therapists’ behaviors during the first 16 sessions were coded by independent observers. Children’s negative in-session behaviors predicted lower child- and therapist-rated TA (averaged across mid- and end-of-intervention). Children’s in-session positive behaviors, at both the individual and group-wide level, predicted higher later TA. Therapists’ efforts to manage deviant behavior predicted stronger child-reported ratings of the relational bond and of child- and therapist-rated task collaboration. Exploratory analyses indicate that the effect of children’s in-session behaviors on later TA is moderated by therapists’ skills in managing the group and in managing deviant talk and behavior in sessions. Clinical and research implications of the findings are discussed.

Previous research reports that offspring of parents with histories of childhood maltreatment are at increased risk for mental health problems, yet the mechanisms remain unclear. This study examines the extent to which parent psychopathology mediates the relationship between parent maltreatment history and offspring psychopathology. Using a prospective cohort design, individuals with documented histories of childhood maltreatment (ages 0 – 11 years) during 1967 – 1971 and demographically matched controls were followed into adulthood and first interviewed in 1989-1995 (N = 1,196). Offspring (N = 697, Mage = 22.8 years) were assessed in 2009 – 2010. A general p-factor structure and a model with specific latent constructs were tested. Structural equation modeling was used for mediation. The results indicated that only minor offspring of maltreated parents exhibited more symptoms of depression than offspring of controls. Parent psychopathology predicted offspring psychopathology. Parent depression and dysthymia predicted greater offspring depression, anxiety, PTSD, alcohol use, drug use, and marijuana use. Parent anxiety and alcohol and drug symptoms also predicted offspring alcohol symptoms. There was no evidence that parent psychopathology explained the relationship between a parent’s history of maltreatment and their offspring’s psychopathology. These new results suggest that reconsideration of some assumptions about the intergeneration impacts of maltreatment may be warranted.

Friends and popular peers are important sources of influence across the transition into adolescence. The present study examines the assertion that the magnitude of influence from friends and popularity-based norms varies across behavioral domains. Participants were 543 (268 girls, 275 boys) students from 29 5th–8th grade (ages 10 to 14) classrooms in three Lithuanian public middle schools. Most were ethnic Lithuanians. Self-reports of socioemotional adjustment, including emotional problems, lack of emotional clarity, problem behaviors, social media use, and weight concerns, were collected in the fall and winter of a single academic year, approximately three months apart. Popularity and academic achievement were assessed through peer nominations. Top-ranked best friends were identified from outgoing nominations. Status-based norms, calculated separately for each socioemotional adjustment variable in the fall (Time 1), represented popularity-weighted classroom averages. Results from longitudinal Group Actor-Partner Interdependence Model analyses indicated that best friends and status-based norms exerted differing amounts of influence over different behaviors. When both were included in the same model (with shared effects removed), best friends influenced emotional problems, lack of emotional clarity, and problem behaviors. Among older adolescents, best friends also influenced academic achievement. Status-based norms influenced social media use and, among older adolescents, weight concerns.

Encouraging children’s sympathy (i.e., concern for others) across an array of social contexts is important for strengthening their prosocial responses to conflict and reducing aggression. We examined Canadian children’s (6, 9, and 12 years; N = 186; 50% girls and 50% boys) situational sympathetic responding following harm to victims, and how sympathy across contexts was linked to their aggressive behaviors (beyond dispositional sympathy). Children’s situational sympathy (sadness supported by moral reasoning) was measured in response to (un)provoked harm to hypothetical peers in vignettes. Parents reported on children’s proactive and reactive aggression. We also measured children’s dispositional sympathy via child- and parent-reports. Results showed that children felt stronger situational sympathy for victims of unprovoked harm than provoked harm, and only sympathy following unprovoked harm showed age-related increases. Above and beyond dispositional sympathy, lower situational sympathy in response to provoked harm was associated with higher reactive aggression. These findings demonstrate that children’s sympathy is dampened by a victim’s prior negative behavior – an emotional blunting effect that may have implications for their own retaliatory behavior.

Socioeconomic disadvantage has been established as a key risk factor for adverse child behavioral outcomes. Understanding how individual components of socioeconomic status (SES) interact with each other can elucidate protective factors and inform interventions and policies to promote positive developmental outcomes. This study examined the interactive effects of prenatal household income and neighborhood deprivation on child externalizing and internalizing problems (N = 793; Mage = 8.37 years; 51.2% females; 81.5% White). Results revealed an interaction effect between prenatal household income levels and neighborhood deprivation on child externalizing problems. Higher neighborhood deprivation was associated with higher child externalizing outcomes only at lower household income levels per person. Although no interaction between household income and neighborhood deprivation on child internalizing problems was observed, lower household income levels were independently associated with higher child internalizing problems. These findings underscore how prenatal individual- and neighborhood-level SES factors interact to shape children’s behavioral outcomes across childhood.

The present three-wave longitudinal study tested two transdiagnostic mediators – anger and racism-related vigilance – of the link between racism and internalizing and externalizing problems. At Wave 1, the sample included 344 Mexican-origin adolescents (Mage = 13.5 years; 51.7% male, 45.9% female; 2.3% non-binary) residing in the Midwestern United States. Data across the three waves were collected from April 2021 through October 2024. The study examined how both direct and vicarious racism were related to internalizing and externalizing problems over time. Results from latent growth curve mediation analyses indicated that outward anger expression was a significant mediator; both direct and vicarious racism at Wave 1 were significantly associated with higher levels of anger at Wave 2, which in turn, were associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 3. Racism-related vigilance was a significant mediator of the association between vicarious racism and internalizing problems only, according to results from post hoc sensitivity analyses. Implications for future theory, research, and clinical practice are discussed to help mitigate the effects of racism in new migration contexts for this vulnerable population.

Although temperamental negative affectivity has been identified as a developmental mechanism mediating the link between perinatal risk and internalizing problems in early childhood, its role in predicting broader behavioral and emotional problems across childhood remains understudied. We examined the longitudinal relations among perinatal complications (i.e., prenatal maternal depression and cardiometabolic complications, preterm birth, and low birth weight), children’s negative affectivity (Mage = 2.76; SD = 2.32; range = 0.24–12.46 years), and children’s internalizing, externalizing, and total problems (Mage = 5.12; SD = 2.63; range = 1.50–16.85 years) in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program (N = 3070; 47% females). Results support child negative affectivity as a mechanism in the developmental pathway linking perinatal maternal depressive symptoms and preterm birth to future emotional and behavioral problems, underscoring the importance of early prevention and intervention efforts to promote psychological well-being of at-risk children.