This chapter focuses on the connections between sea surfaces, the atmosphere, and outer space. Its upward-oriented perspective to oceanic history traces these connections from early 20th-century visions like the failed idea of floating airports (seadromes), whose horizontal runways were impractical in aquatic conditions, to later orientation changes. Artificial islands served horizontal helicopter take-off and landing, or offshore rocket launches. The chapter argues that these energy-intensive built environments, enabled by the Age of Oil, spatially and sensually marked the emergence of the oceanic Anthropocene. Platform illumination for helicopters operations, rocket launches, and the flares of oil platforms whose radiation is visible from outer space, created massive “light islands” in marine regions, manifesting carbon emissions. Simultaneously, the light island effect turned into a form of placemaking. Light islands became regular offshore destinations and departure points for other vehicles, creating new oceanic equivalents to terrestrial ports, airports, and spaceports. They also indicated the extension of the human habitat to sea surfaces.

This chapter focuses on the law relating to sovereign territory. The concepts of territory and of territorial sovereignty are examined. The manner in which additional territory may be acquired is analysed. Mechanisms such as boundary treaties and boundary awards are noted, and then the methods of acquisition are discussed. These include an analysis of discovery, accretion, cession, the former use of force and conquest, and the exercise of effective control, including occupation of terra nullius and prescription. The impact of the concepts of the critical date and intertemporal law is noted. Attention then turns to the role of subsequent conduct, such as recognition, acquiescence and estoppel. The principles of territorial integrity and of self-determination in this context are then discussed, together with the doctrine of uti possidetis, both as to the colonial context and more generally. The role of subsequent practice is noted and the importance of sovereign effective control in the circumstances (‘effectivités’). The chapter continues by noting the relevance of leases and servitudes, then turns to international boundary rivers, and then the polar regions. The chapter concludes with a section on the law of outer space.

This chapter concerns international environmental law. It commences with a consideration of an argued human right to a clean environment and the increasing case law on this issue. The relationship between economic development and environmental protection is also addressed, before the key question of state responsibility is surveyed. The appropriate standard, whether or not actual damage is caused, the question of transboundary harm arising from hazardous activities, environmental impact assessments, the precautionary and polluter-pays principles are examined before turning to the range of international treaties on this topic. The question of atmospheric pollution is addressed before the chapter turns to a consideration of climate change and the various international instruments concerning this, including the important Paris Agreement of 2015. Environmental issues and outer space are then discussed, followed by a section on international watercourses and one on ultra-hazardous activities. Questions as to the requirements for the provision of information and assistance are covered.

Chapter 3 delves into the functions and foundations of international environmental law. International environmental law is an institution based on the deliberate redundancy of parallel and overlapping networks that contribute to its resilience and to the maintenance of the minimum public order. We analyze the foundational purposes of international environmental law: the quest for equity and the pursuit of effectiveness. We underline that addressing matters of distributive equity successfully is the sine qua non condition for the effective protection of environmental commons. The tragedy of the commons rationale that precipitated the enclosure of common pool resources in national systems is also driving the enclosure of global common resources. This chapter analyzes the specifics of this enclosure, as it has been unfolding in fisheries, marine genetic resources, germplasm resources and related knowledge, deep-seabed resources, freshwater resources, air, seas, chemicals, wastes, and space. The nature of inclusionary and exclusionary enclosures and how these types of enclosure affect perceptions of distributive equity are critically examined. Finally, international environmental regimes are evaluated based on the effectiveness of the enclosure they have commanded and the perceptions of equity held by the stakeholders and participants in the regimes.

The chapter delves into the intricacies of representations of outer space, exposing their entanglement with colonialist narratives. It analyzes the ideology behind space exploration to show that, rather than being something “new” or aligned with futurism, these texts repeat colonialist conquest narratives while proposing alternative methodologies of “worlding” beyond conventional materialist paradigms. By critiquing mainstream notions of space travel, this chapter illuminates the Cartesian–Baconian separation of humans from nature, which, the author argues, perpetuates antiblackness. Through an analysis of Sun Ra’s Space Is the Place, the chapter illuminates how alternative narratives use outer space as a metaphor to oppose notions of the separation of humans from the natural world and anti-blackness. Sun Ra’s film not only challenges traditional modes of travel but also hints at alternative ways of understanding exploration, most especially of oneself. This shift in perspective signifies a departure from the conventional idea of discovering new worlds towards a more profound concept of co-creating realities, emphasizing shifts in consciousness over mere geographical exploration. Drawing upon the work of Katherine McKittrick and others, this chapter also invites a reconsideration of the ways in which geography itself is constructed, rather than an objective material fact of the phenomenological world.

This chapter examines China’s differential approach vis-à-vis developing and developed countries in advancing its normative agenda on non-weaponization in outer space before the Conference on Disarmament and the UN General Assembly. Pursuant to the logic of the democratization of international relations, China has gained the majority support of developing countries for its agenda around their commonly shared values of peace and development and through other forms of functional cooperation in their outer space activities – increasing its international legitimacy in their eyes. Conversely, China has yet to gain the trust of technologically advanced – developed – nations in order to give its future regulatory framework governing peaceful relationships in outer space its much-needed normativity. Instead, past disarmament efforts in outer space during the Cold War can guide China’s norm-entrepreneurship where it must seek consensus among the major space powers, the United States in particular, on the basis of trust. Without such a fertile soil, however, any rules on the prevention of an arms race in outer space cannot take root.

The chapter discusses the basics of the law of the global commons (seas, air, outer space), by concentrating on what states can do in which zones or spaces

In this chapter Germany’s position on Antarctica, the law of the sea, as well as air and space law will be examined. Concerning the law of the sea, Germany’s critical position on China’s maritime claims in the South China Sea, expressed on many different occasions, will be addressed. Besides that, it will be addressed that Turkey accused Germany of illegally boarding its merchant vessel on the high seas in the Mediterranean. Yet, it will be concluded the boarding and search of the vessel even against the expressed will of Turkey was not illegal under international law. Regarding Turkey’s conduct of seismic surveys in the eastern Mediterranean, Germany’s calls on Turkey to respect international law will be criticised as lacking a legal basis. That Germany joined the UK-led Global Ocean Alliance, will be evaluated as a way for Germany to lobby for greater parts of the ocean being assigned Marine Protected Area status. In the last part, Germany opposing Russian initiatives on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space will be assessed a sign of its increasing frustration with the double standards displayed by Russia and the other major space powers.

While nine States in Asia, Europe, and North America retain and modernise their nuclear arsenals, projecting to retain nuclear weapons for the rest of the century, most of the world and beyond is subject to a regional nuclear-weapon-free zone. This chapter describes the different nuclear-weapon-free zones and the global UN ban treaty, which entered into force in January 2021.

The chapter discusses the basics of the law of the global commons (seas, air, outer space), by concentrating on what states can do in which zones or spaces