This paper introduces the Granular Trade and Production Activities (GRANTPA) database, which covers international trade flows for 3,124 products and 247 countries over the period 1995–2019 as well as domestic trade flows and production data for the same number of products and years for a subset of 35 European economies. The original data sources that we employ are Eurostat’s Comext and Prodcom databases. A gravity application delivers a large set of product-level ‘home bias’ estimates, which cannot be obtained without domestic trade flows. The average estimates on the standard gravity variables in our model (e.g., distance) are comparable to those from the related literature. However, our disaggregated estimates are very heterogeneous across products, thus highlighting the importance of our new database.

Fish, particularly oily fish, is a rich source of nutrients with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties and its consumption has been associated with lower risk of chronic diseases(1). Higher fish consumption has been associated with lower risk of multiple sclerosis (MS)(2); however, evidence regarding its association with patient-reported outcome measures (anxiety, depression, and fatigue) in people with MS is limited. We used data from the AusLong Study, a longitudinal cohort of people with MS. Patient-reported outcome measures were assessed at 5, 10, and 15-year follow-ups. Anxiety and depression were assessed using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; fatigue was assessed using the Fatigue Severity Scale. Higher scores indicate higher levels of anxiety, depression or fatigue symptoms. Fish consumption (tinned, grilled, fried, and total: sum of tinned, grilled, fried fish; g/day) was derived from dietary intake data collected using a food frequency questionnaire at 5, 10 and 15-year follow-ups. Diet quality was assessed using the alternate Mediterranean diet score (aMED), excluding the fish component. Higher adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern associates with a higher diet quality(3). All three patient-reported outcome measures were not normally distributed and were Box-Cox transformed. Multivariable mixed-effect generalized linear models, adjusted for relevant covariates, were used to test associations between fish consumption (per 30 g/day, equivalent to approximately two servings of fish per week) and Box-Cox transformed patient-reported outcome measures. Analyses were adjusted for sex, age, study region, follow-up time point, smoking, disease-modifying medication use, education (depression only), employment status (anxiety and fatigue only), total energy intake, and diet quality (aMED excluding fish). Results were Box-Cox back transformed for reporting purposes. Most participants were female (95/119) with the median age of 54 years (IQR = 12.86) at the 15-year follow-up. The results revealed that higher consumption of total fish (Box-Cox transformed β coefficient = −0.19, back transformed β coefficient = 0.72, 95% CI 0.56, 0.90) and tinned fish (Box-Cox transformed β coefficient = −0.34, back transformed β coefficient = 0.59, 95% CI 0.36, 0.86) were significantly associated with lower depression score. No association was found between fish consumption (total, tinned, grilled, fried) and symptoms of anxiety or fatigue. Our result that higher fish consumption was associated with lower symptoms of depression in people with MS supports findings of other studies showing that higher fish consumption associates with lower risk of depression in healthy populations(4). In our study, fish consumption was associated with lower symptoms of depression in people with MS, and the association was independent of diet quality. Following a diet in line with national guidelines to include at least two servings of fish (particularly oily fish) per week could be beneficial for people with MS.

Barr et al.’s WILD approach to social-cognitive development appropriately identifies sampling shortcomings in Shared Intentionality and Attachment Theories. I argue these theories reflect evolved social-cognitive mechanisms that are expressed differently in different rearing environments and remain conceptual anchors for understanding important aspects of human social-cognitive development that should gain even more explanatory power with the addition of WILD data.

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption is growing nearly everywhere, including in Australia(1). Ultra-processed dietary patterns are associated with chronic disease and contribute to environmental degradation(2,3). The UPF concept is novel and has gained increased media and public attention in recent years. Despite this, research investigating the public’s perceptions regarding UPFs is limited. Therefore, this study aimed to explore Reddit forum discussions about UPFs to identify the main topics of discussion and examine how UPFs are portrayed. A qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the ‘top’ threads from the r/ultraprocessedfood subreddit, a global Reddit community dedicated to discussing UPFs, with over 34,000 subscribers. Data were collected in January 2025. A coding framework was developed deductively, and codes were informed by literature that uses a food systems lens to discuss UPFs(2–4) to capture a comprehensive range of issues related to UPF, including their impacts and causal mechanisms. The framework included codes to represent UPF-related topics that were discussed: health; planetary health; social inequities; culture; political economy; food system; dietary patterns; food; and nutri-biochemical. Coding was undertaken by two researchers in NVivo. Fifty threads comprised of a total of 2,730 comments were collected and analysed. The most frequently discussed topic was food (n = 45 (90%) threads, n = 1188 (43.5%) comments), followed by dietary patterns (n = 37 (74%) threads, n = 415 (15.2%) comments), health (n = 43 (86%) threads, n = 404 (14.8%) comments), food system (n = 34 (68%) threads, n = 323 (11.8%) comments) and nutri-biochemical (n = 34 (68%) threads, n = 322 (11.8%) comments). The least discussed topic was planetary health, which was coded to 13 (26%) threads and 25 (0.9%) comments. Comments under the most coded topic, food, often contained information or questions about specific foods being UPF or non-UPF, tips and food swaps for avoiding UPFs. Discussion of ‘UPF-free’ or ‘low UPF’ cooking, food preparation, meal ideas and grocery shopping was also common, with users sharing helpful information and offering support. Comments under the second-most coded topic, dietary patterns, discussed the practicalities of consuming a diet with no or minimal UPFs, with many users stating that it is unfeasible to consume a diet completely free of UPFs. The third-most common topic, health, often discussed health impacts linked to ultra-processed dietary patterns or described personal health outcomes users attributed to their UPF intake. Overall, Reddit posts discussed a broad range of topics related to UPFs. Support forums and promotion of cooking may be a useful tool to support reductions in UPF consumption. Environmental health was rarely discussed and is an important facet of ultra-processed dietary patterns for future public health messaging to address.

Externally controlled single-arm trials are critical to assess treatment efficacy across therapeutic indications for which randomized controlled trials are not feasible. A closely-related research design, the unanchored indirect treatment comparison, is often required for disconnected treatment networks in health technology assessment. We present a unified causal inference framework for both research designs. We develop an estimator that augments a popular weighting approach based on entropy balancing—matching-adjusted indirect comparison (MAIC)—by fitting a model for the conditional outcome expectation. The predictions of the outcome model are combined with the entropy balancing MAIC weights. While the standard MAIC estimator is singly robust where the outcome model is non-linear, our augmented MAIC approach is doubly robust (DR), providing increased robustness against model misspecification. This is demonstrated in a simulation study with binary outcomes and a logistic outcome model, where the augmented estimator demonstrates its DR property, while exhibiting higher precision than all non-augmented weighting estimators and near-identical precision to G-computation. We describe the extension of our estimator to the setting with unavailable individual participant data for the external control, illustrating it through an applied example. Our findings reinforce the understanding that entropy balancing-based approaches have desirable properties compared to standard “modeling” approaches to weighting, but should be augmented to improve protection against bias and guarantee double robustness.

Adequate protein intake is essential for maintaining muscle and bone health(1). In the context of an ageing population, it is not only the amount of protein that matters, but also its source and quality, which are increasingly recognised as factors in preserving musculoskeletal function. With the growing shift towards a more plant-based diet, driven largely by sustainability concerns, understanding protein source intake and quality becomes even more crucial(2). However, despite growing awareness of protein’s importance, there is a lack of evidence for the current protein intake, source intake and quality in the Australian population. The aim of this study was to assess protein intake, source and quality in a nationally representative sample of Australian older adults. This study is a cross-sectional secondary data analysis including n = 2819 participants aged 55 years and over from the Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (S), part of the 2011–13 Australian Health Survey (AHS). Dietary data (two 24-hour recalls) were used to derive total protein intake (g/day and g/kg/day) as well as protein intake from either animal or plant-based protein sources (g/day and percentage of total protein intake). Protein quality per meal was derived using the alpha tool(3), and expressed as a meal protein quality score ranging from 0–100, with a score of 100 being the highest protein quality. Of the n = 2819 participants (mean age 67 ± 9), n = 1520 were female, and n = 1299 were male. The daily protein intake was 83.7 g/day, with 64.4% from animal-based protein sources and 35.7% from plant-based protein sources. Breakfast had the highest proportion of plant-based protein sources (55.4%), followed by lunch (32.3%) and dinner (21.6%). In contrast, animal-based protein sources were highest at dinner (78.4%), followed by lunch (67.7%) and breakfast (24.5%). Protein quality scores (daily and per meal) will be assessed. The study will provide insight into the older Australians’ daily protein intake, source intake and distribution as well as protein quality. This is essential for effectively identifying nutritional strategies to manage age-related diseases such as sarcopenia and osteoporosis, and as such, support healthy ageing.

We consider a fragment of Higher-Order Datalog with negation and argue that it generalizes the familiar and important fragment of Linear Datalog. We investigate the expressive power of this fragment, establishing a tight connection with the hierarchy of space complexity classes. In particular, we demonstrate that for all $k \ge 1$, the $(k+1)$-order fragment of Stratified Linear Higher-Order Datalog$^\neg$ captures $(k-1)-\textsf {EXPSPACE}$. This result suggests that restricting programs to linear recursion shifts the expressive power of the corresponding fragments from time to space, generalizing the classical result that (Stratified) Linear Datalog captures NL. Unlike the first-order setting where an ordering assumption is required to capture $\mathsf{NL}$, our results hold without any such assumption on the input database. The proof relies on simulating space-bounded Turing machines using Stratified Linear Higher-Order Datalog$^\neg$ programs and providing a space-efficient evaluation of the query program. We argue that identifying such computationally well-behaved fragments is a crucial step toward paving the way for practical implementations of Higher-Order Datalog.

According to one influential line of thought, quasi-realism is faced with a dilemma. On the one hand, if the quasi-realist project of saying everything the realist wants to say is successful, quasi-realism collapses into realism. On the other hand, if the quasi-realist stops short of saying everything the realist wants to say, quasi-realism fails to realize its explanatory ambitions. In a recent paper, Bart Streumer argues that there is a way for the quasi-realist to avoid this problem by endorsing the first horn of the dilemma. More specifically, Streumer argues that quasi-realism could be true although we are unable to believe it, and that our inability to believe it could be evidence for its truth. In this paper, we first argue that Streumer’s argument is unsuccessful. We then argue that Streumer’s argument is unsuccessful for an interesting reason; namely for how it invites the exploration of an underappreciated theoretical alternative along broadly pragmatist lines, which we outline in the final section of the paper. What hinges on this invitation is nothing less than the question of what contemporary debates in metaethics and metanormativity are all about.

What if linguistic anthropological studies of sensory evaluation began not with wine connoisseurship but with scat identification? Focusing on Sino-Tibetan community-science collaborations on the Tibetan Plateau, this paper examines wildlife scat—a crucial indicator for Indigenous experts and conservation biologists. In everyday life, Tibetans and Han Chinese rarely agree on shit; yet, collaborative scat identification sustains a scientific chronotope that suspends macro-level ethnonational frictions. Analyzing an English-language scatological manual alongside a Mandarin-Amdo Tibetan interactional transcript, I investigate the specialized linguistic repertoire used to calibrate scat observation. By examining how speakers simultaneously describe perception (“sensation”) and judge species origin (“ontology”), I argue that adjectival predicates function as dynamic interactional operators—a phenomenon I term adjectival deixis. Ultimately, this paper delineates two core functions of adjectival deixis: chronotope projection and referent configuration. In doing so, it reveals how referential practice drives intersubjective sensory calibration and rapport-making, co-constituting language-use and materiality.

Intestinal glucose absorption is predominantly mediated by sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). Expression of these glucose transporters is influenced by diet, inflammation and insulin sensitivity, and is increased in patients with type 2 diabetes(1). Overexpression may increase intestinal glucose absorption and exacerbate postprandial hyperglycaemia. Chronic low-grade inflammation, common in metabolic diseases, upregulates these transporters(2) and the SARS-CoV-2 receptors, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2)(3), potentially worsening glucose metabolism and increasing susceptibility to COVID-19. We hypothesised that dietary phytochemicals, known to regulate glucose metabolism and inflammation, may counteract high glucose- and inflammation-induced changes in transporter and viral receptor expression. We initially screened various phytochemicals, pharmaceuticals and plant extracts for their effects on the expression of ACE2 or TMPRSS2 in differentiated Caco-2/TC7 human intestinal epithelial cells. Genistein, apigenin, artemisinin and sulforaphane were the most promising compounds for downregulating TMPRSS2, and thus were used in subsequent experiments. The cells were stimulated with glucose or pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), with and without the phytochemicals. ACE2, TMPRSS2, SGLT1 and GLUT2 mRNA was measured by droplet digital PCR, while interleukin-8 (IL-8) and ACE2 proteins were assessed using ELISA, with significant changes detected by ANOVA. To assess whether effects observed in Caco-2/TC7 cells were relevant to human tissues, we examined gene expression in human gut tissues from patients with and without inflammatory bowel disease using transcriptomic datasets. In Caco-2/TC7 cells, high glucose (25 mM) increased expression of SGLT1 (p < 0.05) and TMPRSS2 (p < 0.01), while exposure to pro-inflammatory cytokines upregulated ACE2 (p < 0.001), TMPRSS2 (p < 0.001) and SGLT1 (p < 0.001). Although none of the phytochemicals decreased inflammation-induced IL-8 secretion, genistein normalised inflammation-induced increases in SGLT1 (p < 0.01) and TMPRSS2 (p < 0.001). The regulation of SGLT1 gene expression followed the same pattern as TMPRSS2, implying a common mechanism. In the human transcriptome data, we observed a correlation between TMPRSS2 and SGLT1 (r > 0.5, p < 0.05), which was enhanced by inflammation. High glucose and inflammation upregulate ACE2, SGLT1 and TMPRSS2 in intestinal cells, potentially increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes and SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans via a gut-mediated mechanism. The association between TMPRSS2 and SGLT1 gene expression, which is particularly evident in inflammatory conditions, suggests a common regulatory pathway that warrants further investigation. These findings suggest a possible relationship between elevated SGLT1 and new-onset diabetes in COVID-19 patients and may help to explain why individuals with metabolic diseases are more likely to develop severe COVID-19. Furthermore, our results provide mechanistic evidence for nutrition-based interventions, such as genistein, to potentially alleviate postprandial glycaemic response and COVID-19 pathophysiology.

Nitrous oxide is being investigated as a treatment for therapy-resistant depression, yet its environmental implications as a potent greenhouse gas are largely unaddressed. A single 1 h treatment generates ∼150 kg CO2-equivalents, rising to ∼7.8 t per patient-year, highlighting the need to incorporate environmental externalities into evaluation.

Crowd-sourced replication initiatives reveal that cultural differences in findings, while undoubtedly important in some cases, are often smaller and less systematic than assumed. This makes empirical testing, rather than presumption, exigent. The extent to which developmental psychology theories generalize across cultures is an empirical question, best answered via small- and large-scale collaborations between partner laboratories across the world.

Distance running offers many health benefits, yet injuries are common. In long-distance runners (> 20 km/week), a previous running-related injury (RRI) is the strongest predictor of injury(1). In females, menstrual dysfunction and low bone mineral density (BMD) increases bone stress injury (BSI) risk(2). A recent meta-analysis of diet-related risk factors found lower total energy and fat intakes in injured female runners, and a lower fibre intake in both sexes combined with a BSI(3). Of the four studies contributing to these findings, all involved younger trained or highly trained athletes, with only one including females up to 53 years. Older runners may be at increased risk due to age-related physiological changes and nutrient deficiencies, but prospective studies are lacking. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between bone health, diet, and RRI in masters distance runners. Male and female masters athletes (≥ 35 years) running ≥ 30 km/week enrolled in a 6-month prospective study. Baseline measures included demographics, diet (energy, macro- and micronutrients), and BMD (total body and site-specific). Dietary intake was compared to Australian nutrient reference values or sports recommendations. Weekly running mileage and injury occurrence were tracked for six months. Analyses were conducted for the whole cohort and by sex. Of 100 runners (n = 56 male) completing the study, 26 sustained a soft tissue injury (with one combined soft tissue and BSI). Injured runners (both sexes combined) had lower dual femoral neck BMD (Hedge’s g = −0.51, p = 0.028), Z-score (Hedge’s g = −0.52, p = 0.032), and T-score (Hedge’s g = 0.40, p = 0.040) compared to uninjured runners. Injured females had lower dual femoral neck BMD (Hedge’s g = −0.64, p = 0.049) compared to uninjured females, and females with whole-body T-score ≤ 1 had higher injury risk (OR = 6.4, p = 0.030). Few runners met their estimated energy requirements (24% females, 29% of males), with no difference in intake between injured and uninjured runners. Similarly, no significant relationships were observed for macronutrients. Males not meeting calcium recommendations had higher injury risk (OR = 4.0, p = 0.03). Females not meeting iron recommendations had lower injury risk (OR = 0.21, p = 0.038). Findings suggest bone health may influence soft tissue injury risk in masters distance runners, as shown by sex-specific associations between BMD and injury. No associations for energy and macronutrients may reflect overall inadequate intake. Inadequate calcium intake in males may impair soft tissue integrity and repair, increasing injury risk. The protective effect of low iron intake in females may relate to poor overall intake or use of age-based recommendations that overlook menstrual status. Larger, long-term studies using age-appropriate assessments are warranted.

Globally, approximately 2.9 million people live with multiple sclerosis (MS). The prevalence of depression and anxiety is significantly higher in people with MS than in the general population, contributing to a lower quality of life(1). A high-quality diet has been shown to have beneficial effects on MS symptoms, including mental health outcomes. Despite emerging evidence on the association between a high-quality diet and mental health outcomes in people with MS, there is a lack of evidence supporting the specific effects of dietary quality on depression and anxiety in MS. Adults with MS gather information from a range of resources to improve their diet and mental health. However, little is known about the development sources and nature of diet-focused resources aimed at improving mental health outcomes in adults with MS. We conducted a scoping review to identify and map the content, accessibility, acceptability, and usefulness of diet-focused resources aimed at improving depression and anxiety in adults with MS. The review was conducted according to the JBI methodology for scoping reviews and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist(2). Resources eligible for inclusion could be of any type (e.g., web article, blog, dietary modification program) and in any format (e.g., online, telehealth, in-person). Included resources featured diet, food, or nutrition as a mechanism to improve depression and anxiety in adults with MS. A comprehensive search was conducted to identify published (MEDLINE, CINAHL Ultimate, PsycINFO, Emcare, Scopus, ProQuest Central, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) and unpublished resources (ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, Google Scholar, websites, and organisations). From 949 resources screened (n = 834 articles and other resources retrieved from databases; n = 98 resources retrieved from websites; n = 17 resources retrieved from organisations), 64 were included (n = 42 organisational or web-based resources, e.g., podcast episodes, blog posts, web articles; n = 20 published journal articles; n = 1 mobile application in development; n = 1 book). Resources mentioned an extensive range of dietary and nutritional information (e.g., macronutrients, food groups, micronutrients, MS-specific diets) linked to depression and anxiety for people with MS; however, 6 resources were based solely on lived experience, while other resources involved a combination of input from experts (n = 54), organisations (n = 23), authors or journalists (n = 5), or co-design (n = 1). Furthermore, some resources (n = 20) were only available in certain countries or regions due to recruitment restrictions, making them inaccessible for many people with MS. Developing evidence-based mental health and dietary resources tailored for people with multiple sclerosis will address the current gap in credible, co-designed resources accessible to the multiple sclerosis community.

Skin yellowness has been found to positively associate with carotenoid intake, and fruit and vegetable intake in young Caucasians(1–3). Carotenoids are lipid soluble pigments found predominantly in fruit and vegetables. After absorption, a proportion of carotenoids are deposited in the skin, where they contribute to skin yellowness, which can be measured using reflectance spectroscopy, raising its potential as an objective, non-invasive measure of carotenoid, or fruit and vegetable intake. Studies measuring skin yellowness and its association with carotenoid or fruit and vegetable intake are generally cross-sectional in nature and overrepresented by younger populations. In this study we investigated whether a two-week vegetable soup intervention, adding 4 daily serves of either high-carotenoid (14.9 mg/d), or low-carotenoid (6.4 mg/d) vegetables per day, altered skin yellowness and serum carotenoid concentrations in older adults (n = 18, 83% female, average age = 66 years, BMI = 27.4 kg/m2). Participants were randomised into either a high carotenoid soup (20% carrot, 40% potato, 30% pumpkin, 10% sweet potato) or low-carotenoid soup (40% broccoli, 25% cabbage, 25% cauliflower, 10% kale) intervention, both with equal serves of vegetables. Participants consumed the provided soups and standard frozen meals for lunch and dinner, but breakfast and snacks were ad libitum. Total fruit and vegetable intake was determined using an interview-based food frequency questionnaire (baseline) and a two-week food record (during intervention). Total carotenoid intake from fruits and vegetables was calculated using data from either the Australian Food Composition Database, or the US Department of Agriculture Database. Skin yellowness was assessed using skin reflectance spectroscopy (CIE Lab l*a*b*) where b* represents the degree of yellowness, and serum carotenoid concentrations determined using high performance liquid chromatography. There were no significant changes in total fruit and vegetable intake in either group, but participants randomised to the high-carotenoid soup intervention, had a significant increase over the intervention period in carotenoid intake (+113.2 mg (high) vs. −62.8 mg (low), p < 0.01), total serum carotenoid concentrations (+1.56 µg/mL (high) vs. +0.4 µg/mL (low), p < 0.05) and skin yellowness at multiple skin sites (shoulder, biceps, palm, and sole of foot, all p < 0.05) compared to those randomised to the low-carotenoid soup intervention. Changes in serum carotenoid concentrations during the intervention were strongly associated with changes in skin yellowness (biceps, palm, sole of foot, all p < 0.05), but not with changes in total fruit and vegetable intake, which remained generally unchanged. In summary, changes in skin yellowness were detected following a 2 week high carotenoid soup intervention, compared to participants on a low-carotenoid soup intervention in the absence of changes to total fruit and vegetable intake. These findings emphasise the importance of carotenoid-rich fruit and vegetables when using skin colour to predict fruit and vegetable consumption.

We were pleased to read the comments on our target article expressing views from diverse disciplines, including biology, philosophy, psychiatry, anthropology, and numerous branches of psychology (i.e., developmental, cultural, evolutionary, and comparative psychology). In this response, we discuss their ideas about routes to increasing inclusivity in theories of developmental psychology and present our disagreements with the few who argue that there is no need for change to theories. We highlight the commentators’ broad agreement with the main themes of the WILD (Worldwide, In situ, Local, & Diverse) approach and the practical guide of 5 Steps to Inclusivity, and we consolidate commentators’ views on infrastructural changes that are necessary to reach our collective goal of increasing inclusivity in theories of developmental psychology.

School lunches significantly contribute to children’s dietary intake and nutrition status(1), yet little is known about children’s perceptions regarding school lunches. Therefore, this study aimed to explore Victorian (Australian) primary school children’s current practices and perceptions regarding school lunches. An online survey was used to gather the opinions and practices of children in grades 4–6 (aged 10–12 years). Frequencies and percentages were calculated for quantitative variables, and chi-square tests were used to explore associations between categorical variables. Qualitative responses were analysed using content and thematic analysis approaches. A hundred and thirty-eight children completed the survey between late-2022 and mid-2024. Most children (84%) reported that they bring a packed lunch from home every day to eat during the school lunchtime. Most rarely or never purchase food from the school canteen (81%) and rarely or never use the lunch order system (86%). The top five food items children reported ‘usually eating for school lunch’ included sandwiches, fruits, vegetables, crackers, and yoghurt, whilst the top five food items they ‘would love to have for school lunch’ included sandwiches, chocolates and sweets, pasta, chips, and pizza. Most children agreed that they like to eat lunch before playing (86%), have quick-to-eat food for their lunch (84%), and like to eat warm or freshly cooked food for their lunch (72%). Over 60% of children agreed that they like to eat their lunch outside the classroom and would like to have food warming and cooling facilities in school. Nearly half of children (52%) agreed that the time allocated for eating is long enough to eat their lunch if they want to. More non-government school children (64%) disagreed that the time given for eating is enough compared to government school children (40%) (p = 0.009). The most enjoyable aspects of school lunchtime included the opportunity to socialise with friends, a chance to eat food and not feel hungry, and the opportunity to break from learning. Things children did not like about school lunchtime included not having enough time to eat their food, food rules, the lack of variety in meals or running out of food to eat, and unpleasant social interactions (e.g., fights with friends). When asked if they would like their school to provide school-provided lunches, 47% chose ‘yes’, and 45% chose ‘maybe’. The findings show that home-packed lunch is the main source of food for school lunches and children desire changes in the school food environment such as having food-warming facilities and increasing the time allocated to eat. The findings also show that children welcome the idea of school-provided lunches. These findings provide some insights for policymakers and health promoters to use to devise discrete strategies to improve primary school lunches and the school food environment.

Food and nutrition insecurity in high‑income countries is increasingly persistent, driven by intersecting economic, social and environmental disruptions. In Australia, acute shocks such as the COVID‑19 pandemic, floods and bushfires, alongside chronic pressures including rising food prices, housing stress and concentrated corporate power, have exposed structural weaknesses in food access, governance and system resilience. This review examines how community‑led responses to food and nutrition insecurity function during disruption, whether they buffer short-term hardship or contribute to adaptive capacity and redistribution of agency. Guided by the six‑pillar food security framework and a socio-ecological model, responses are examined across household, community, organisational and governance levels. A continuum of responses is identified, ranging from downstream emergency food relief that buffers immediate hardship through to community and organisational food infrastructure that strengthens local resilience and governance‑level responses with greater transformative potential. Drawing on this synthesis, we propose the SEEDS (Socio-Ecological Enablers of Dietary Security) Model, which conceptualises how food system responses across socio-ecological levels and over time can progress from buffering (acute) to adaptation (medium‑term) and ultimately transformation (long‑term). Central to this framework is a shift in decision‑making power, accountability and participation. While many initiatives improve food access and short‑term stability during crises, the greatest potential for transformation lies where responses are embedded within governance structures, enable meaningful community participation and influence policy, procurement and resource allocation. Implications for public health nutrition practice include expanded roles in systems leadership, cross‑sector governance and advocacy for upstream policy reform.