This chapter focuses on patterns and principles describing the distribution of sounds in sequences. It is shown that syllables are subject to the same concept of chunking (constituency) as words in a sentences or morphemes within a word. Poetry, speech errors, and experimental studies about pronunciation and perception of sounds are discussed.

Chapter 2 focuses on offensive language, positioned at the midpoint in the spectrum discussed in the first chapter. We situate offence and the acts of causing and taking offence in the theory of (im)politeness. The chapter reviews the development of (im)politeness theory through three waves and situates the current book within this theoretical progression. In this chapter, building on the previous literature, we also propose a model of offence which distinguishes between legal and moral (interactional) transgressions. To discuss the legal side, we focus on UK law, examining the challenges surrounding the concept of grossly offensive through a discussion of several high-profile cases. We also focus on moral-order transgressions which occur when interactional norms are breached. The chapter also argues that taking offence, whether face-to-face or online, could be a strategic social action used to, among other things, assert boundaries or influence social norms. As we argue, online offence may function as a tool for collective action, for raising awareness and for promoting social change.

This chapter summarises the key findings of the book on offensive language online, with particular emphasis on the perspectives of those targeted. It outlines the book’s multi-layered approach, which integrates corpus linguistics, discourse analysis and pragmatics. The chapter also explores future directions for research, including platform-specific variations, sociolinguistic changes and the value of interdisciplinary methodologies for understanding and addressing offensive language in digital spaces.

This chapter introduces the complex relationship between human societies and the environment, emphasising the role of structural inequalities in exacerbating environmental challenges. It begins by outlining the development of environmental sociology as a discipline, highlighting its focus on the interplay between ecological and societal systems. The chapter explores how environmental problems, such as climate change and pollution, disproportionately affect marginalised communities, particularly those in the Global South. It highlights the multifaceted nature of inequalities, including economic, gender and racial dimensions, and their impact on climate-based vulnerabilities and forced migration. The chapter also examines the role of economic growth in driving environmental degradation while acknowledging the potential for technological advancements to mitigate these effects. It aims to provide a solid understanding of the sociological perspectives on environmental communication. Additionally, it highlights the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in addressing environmental issues, advocating for collaboration between social scientists, policymakers and activists.

Chapter 5 focuses on the semantic domains of offensive language. The analysis of the semantic domains further confirms that offensive language is opinionated, intrusive and judgemental. Using the Wmatrix5 tools, we identify key areas of meaning that allow offenders to express, for example, criticism and negativity. Our analysis reveals a significant overrepresentation of terms related to, for example, dislike, foolishness and negative judgements about appearance, which overall point to a tendency towards personal attacks. By focusing on these domains, we aim to address further gaps in offensive language research, and predict alternative expressions of similar meanings.

This chapter explores the constructed nature of environmental understanding through colonial, neocolonial, postcolonial and ecofeminist lenses. It begins by dissecting the binary opposition of nature versus civilisation as shaped by colonial narratives, revealing how this dichotomy justified the exploitation of Indigenous populations, women and natural resources. The analysis extends to neocolonial practices – such as land-grabbing and neoliberal economic expansion – and their environmental repercussions. Through literary and filmic examples like Robinson Crusoe and Cast Away, the chapter highlights how survival narratives reinforce human supremacy and commodify nature. It then critically examines the idealisation of Indigenous peoples as ‘noble savages’ and the romanticised notion of nature as a Garden of Eden. Moving towards constructive alternatives, it foregrounds postcolonial and ecofeminist approaches that challenge anthropocentrism, promote interconnectedness and embrace Indigenous cosmologies centred around earth goddesses like Pachamama and Papatūānuku. The chapter concludes with a case study on Brendon Grimshaw’s ecological restoration of Moyenne Island, advocating for grassroots conservation and ethical environmental care. Ultimately, the chapter urges readers to reassess dominant narratives and join collective efforts to protect and regenerate nature.

Chapter 8 investigates the complex relationship between online offensive language and creativity. We demonstrate how creativity extends beyond literary contexts to everyday online interactions. The chapter showcases a vast array of creative tools that are used to cause offence and attests to the fact that while creativity could be enriched by the resources available on various online platforms (e.g., memes and emojis), written language remains central to creative communication. We demonstrate how creative language tools categorised under, for example, tropes, figures of diction and figures of thought, help the offender construct remarks that target sensitive aspects such as appearance, race, gender and personality. We also argue that creative language functions on multiple levels, with its interpretation often requiring a pragmatic layer that extends beyond simple word recognition.

This chapter continues with the themes in the previous two chapters but applies the same concepts to languages other than English. In particular, languages that at first glance present a possible counterexample to the idea of non-linearity of language are considered. It is shown that even languages as varied as Irish Gaelic, Malagasy, and Warlpiri follow the same non-linear principles discussed throughout the book.

This chapter examines the intricate relationship between First Knowledging and First Languaging, highlighting their intersection through playfulness and precarity. Drawing on examples from Indigenous reindeer communities in Mongolia and Aboriginal schools across Western Australia, it explores how people live, perform, and negotiate these interwoven practices within and beyond classroom contexts. First Knowledging, rooted in ancestral wisdom, cultural practices, and land-based ontologies, is expressed through First Languaging – fluid, embodied, and spiritually infused forms of communication that transcend conventional linguistic boundaries. Storytelling, yarning, art, and song become vital modes through which these knowledges are enacted, shared, and sustained. Yet, this vitality unfolds amid precarity, as institutional constraints, standardised curricula, and settler-colonial systems continue to marginalise Indigenous ways of knowing and being. Within this tension, playfulness emerges as a radical form of resistance and resilience – a creative force enabling learners to navigate and subvert dominant norms while maintaining continuity with ancestral traditions.

This chapter continues with the themes of the previous chapter but extends the focus to animals closest to humans: apes. It is shown that even chimps and bonobos, who are our closest evolutionary relatives, lack the ability to communicate through language organized in a non-linear way, as has been shown for human language.