This chapter continues the discussion of how English came to function as the language of African self-expression in the twentieth century and was ultimately liberated from its colonial legacies. The chapter starts by exploring the so-called language question, a long-running debate on the status and function of the English language in the making of African letters, which has perhaps been the most divisive issue among African writers in the second half of the twentieth century. The debate was not simply a feud on language use but the expression of a deep anxiety about what it has meant to produce a literature of decolonization in the language of the former colonizer. The second part of the chapter provides an account of the evolution and transformation of English in Africa among different social groups including the slave traders of Calabar, Creole elites in West Africa, and the elites produced by the colonial schools and university colleges that produced the first generation of African writers.

Chapter 2 explains how the Economist Mental Model (EMM) is measured by capturing two key dimensions: familiarity with core economic concepts (e.g., inflation, supply–demand, market dynamics) and the application of economic reasoning tools (e.g., cost–benefit analysis, opportunity costs, marginal analysis). This measurement approach uses an index of “economic knowledge,” drawn from original surveys in the US, Italy, and the UK. By assessing both factual economic knowledge and the ability to apply it to hypothetical scenarios, the index distinguishes EMM users (high economic knowledge) from those with Alternative Mental Models (AMMs) (low economic knowledge). Descriptive findings reveal that older, educated, wealthier men tend to score higher, with no strong partisan gap. Notably, EMM adopters do not value economic objectives more than those with AMMs, highlighting that differences in policy choices likely stem from how trade-offs are interpreted rather than divergent fundamental values. Demonstrating strong consistency across contexts, these measures set the stage for subsequent empirical analyses.

This chapter collects evidence from drama, poetry, cult inscriptions, and papyri that identifies peithō with the action of enchantment (thelgein). Descriptions of the goddess Peithō in cult and early Greek poetry, beginning with Hesiod, associate her with the magical qualities of related divinities, such as Aphrodite and Hermes. The chapter outlines three mechanisms of Peithō’s bewitching action that are represented across a variety of source material: the beguilement of the eyes in Ibycus, Pindar, and Aeschylus; the driving force of erotic agōgai in Pindar and the Greek Magical Papyri; and the ambiguous poison of pharmaka (drugs) in Gorgias’ Encomium and Sophocles’ Trachiniae. Through association with the operations of thelgein, peithō is situated as a surreptitious and enchanting force that comes from outside but can also enter the psyche of a person with or without their willing it.

The conclusion unifies the book’s central theme: Mental models shape how people evaluate trade-offs, process information, and choose policies. Those with the Economist Mental Model systematically weigh costs and benefits, integrate new evidence, and ultimately favor measures that maximize aggregate welfare – even if such policies require short-term sacrifices. In contrast, those with Alternative Mental Models rely on different heuristics, often supporting short-term, populist policies that can undermine long-term prosperity. Across policy areas ranging from Brexit to AI, individuals who think like economists prove more receptive to economic information and less swayed by zero-sum narratives. Yet, these findings highlight a demographic skew in economic knowledge, skewing older, educated, wealthier, and male. The conclusion stresses the urgency of democratizing economic reasoning, showing that targeted interventions can broaden its reach. Ultimately, empowering diverse populations to think more like economists holds promise for forging consensus around policies that balance immediate concerns with long-term gains.

Temporal graphs, in which the vertex-set remains fixed but the edge-set is subject to discrete changes over time, provide a useful formalism for modelling many real-world datasets, from social networks to transport networks. However, many fundamental concepts and results in graph theory do not transfer in a natural way to the temporal setting, and, in particular, even basic algorithmic questions become much more computationally challenging. In this article, we provide an overview of recent attempts to identify tractable cases for computational problems on temporal graphs, via the framework of parameterised complexity, and reflect on the major challenges in addressing this goal.

Popular culture has been instrumental for defining Asian American identities, featuring long-standing tensions between self-representation and those by a White majority. The digital media revolution has both multiplied self-representation and overturned notions of the category’s inherent national exclusivity as international imagery flows freely across borders. Early imagery portrayed immigrant Asians as a “yellow peril” that threatened White society, while human villages at world’s fairs and even urban ethnic enclaves delimited Asian American representation. In theatre and movies, White actors usually played the Asian characters using makeup and enacting “yellowface.” But, beginning in the late 1960s, Asian Americans began fighting back in independent films that resisted the racist stereotypes, depicted the damage of Orientalist representation, and created new imagery. Across types of popular culture – from foodways to social media – and through media stars like Bruce Lee, Margaret Cho, or Mindy Kaling, Asian Americans have demonstrated creative independence.

Paul Cullen has long been considered to be the deadly enemy of Fenianism, not least by the Fenians themselves. This chapter seeks to consider in detail Cullen’s attitudes towards violent nationalism, his attempts to suppress it, the success of those attempts, and the ultimate implications for the development of nationalism in Ireland.

This chapter will examine the biopsychosocial (BPS) model of psychopathology.

Minstrel shows and their practice of White actors blackening their faces and hands to portray African American caricatures was the first uniquely American form of theatrical expression. Beginning in the 1830s, professional troupes combined comedy, dance, and music to depict those of African descent as dim-witted, lazy, cartoonish figures. Minstrelsy conjoins complicated racial and class politics, appropriating antebellum slave dialect, music, and dance while simultaneously celebrating it, lampooning it, and denigrating it. Initially directed to Northern working-class audiences, minstrel shows contributed significantly to racial ideologies as they provided a contradictory vehicle for both identification with and revulsion of non-Whites. Minstrelsy dramatically exemplifies how popular culture propagated proslavery ideology in the North. Understanding the cultural dynamics of minstrelsy and blackface is also important as the form has left a complex legacy for modern depiction of African Americans in mass entertainment.