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Various proposals for explaining the origin of the base constituent of the Latin imperfect tense formation in *bā- (e.g. amābam ‘I was loving’) are examined. With an explicit phonological derivation, as well as critical evidence from Latin syntax and word formation, it is demonstrated that the present participle, e.g. *aman(t)s, is the source of the base member of this construction; and that it is joined, as traditionally assumed, to a form of the verb *bhū- ‘be'.
In Greenlandic Eskimo, a polysynthetic language, the word-building apparatus performs much of the work that is accomplished by the syntax of more familiar languages. In particular, numerous processes in this language create verbs from nouns. Evidence of a quite unusual sort shows that these noun-incorporation processes must follow certain ordinary syntactic rules, such as case assignment and modifier-noun agreement. The language thus falsifies pronouncements concerning the independence of syntax and word formation based on data from languages that are typologically very different from Greenlandic
Typological and theoretical speculations about clitics require that the CLITIC be adequately distinguished from the INFLECTIONAL AFFIX on the one hand and from the INDEPENDENT WORD on the other. The first of these tasks has been attended to, but the second has been slighted, with the result that many items labeled ‘particles’ have been treated as clitics.
After some remarks on the nature of ‘tests’ in linguistics, a series of tests is provided here for distinguishing clitics from independent words. On the basis of these, it is concluded that most of the ‘particles’ in the literature are simply words; from this conclusion, it is argued that treating words with idiosyncratic distributions as acategorial ‘particles’ is wrong.
We then consider the relevance of various cases of ‘particles‘—in German, Chrau, Hidatsa, and Welsh—to theoretical proposals about special clitics. These examples include some items that are independent words, some that are inflectional affixes, and others that are independent words with simple clitic variants.
Finally, a class of DISCOURSE MARKERS is delineated: a grammatical category of items which are often classified as ‘particles’ but which turn out, again, to be independent words rather than clitics of any sort.*