The breakup and coalescence of particle aggregates confined at the interface of turbulent liquid layers are investigated experimentally and theoretically. In particular, we consider conductive fluid layers driven by Lorentz forces and laden with millimetre-scale floating particles. These form aggregates held together by capillary attraction and disrupted by the turbulent motion. The process is fully characterised by imaging at high spatio-temporal resolution. The breakup frequency $\varOmega$ is proportional to the mean strain rate and follows a power-law scaling $\varOmega \sim D^{3\text{/}2}$, where $D$ is the size of the aggregate, attributed to the juxtaposition of particle-scale strain cells. The daughter aggregate size distribution exhibits a robust U-shape, which implies erosion of small fragments as opposed to even splitting. The coalescence kernel $\varGamma$ between pairs of aggregates of size $D_{1}$ and $D_{2}$ scales as $\varGamma \sim ( D_{1} + D_{2} )^{2}$, which is consistent with gas-kinetic dynamics. These relations, which apply to regimes dominated both by capillary-driven aggregation and by drag-driven breakup, are implemented into the population balance equation for the evolution of the aggregate number density. Comparison with the experiments shows that the framework captures the observed distribution for aggregates smaller than the forcing length scale.

This study investigates the stability characteristics of rotating-disk boundary layers in rotor–stator cavities under the frameworks of local linear, global linear and global nonlinear analyses. The local linear stability analysis uses the Chebyshev polynomial method, the global linear stability analysis relies on the linearised incompressible Navier–Stokes (N–S) equations and the global nonlinear analysis involves directly solving the complete incompressible N–S equations. In the local linear framework, the velocity profile derived from the laminar self-similar solution on the rotating-disk side of an infinite rotor–stator cavity is mapped to the Bödewadt–Ekman–von Kármán theoretical model to establish a unified analytical framework. For the global stability study, we extend the methodological framework proposed by Appelquist et al. (J. Fluid Mech.,vol 765, 2015, pp. 612–631) for the von Kármán boundary layer, implementing pulsed disturbances and constructing a radial sponge layer to effectively capture the spatiotemporal evolution of perturbation dynamics while mitigating boundary reflection effects. The analysis reveals that the rotating-disk boundary layer exhibits two distinct instability regimes: convective instability emerges at ${\textit{Re}}=r^*/\sqrt {\nu ^*/\varOmega ^*}=204$ (where $r^*$ is the radius, $\nu ^*$ is the kinematic viscosity and $\varOmega ^*$ is the rotation rate of the system) with azimuthal wavenumber $\beta =27$, while absolute instability emerges at ${\textit{Re}}=409.6$ with azimuthal wavenumber $\beta =85$. Under pulsed disturbance excitation, an initial convective instability behaviour dominates in regions exceeding the absolute instability threshold. As perturbations propagate into the sponge layer’s influence domain, upstream mode excitation triggers the emergence of a global unstable mode, characterised by a minimum critical Reynolds number ${\textit{Re}}_{\textit{end}}=484.4$. Further analysis confirms that this global mode is an inherent property of the rotating-disk boundary layer and is independent of the characteristics of the sponge layer. Frequency-domain analysis establishes that the global mode frequency is governed by local stability characteristics at ${\textit{Re}}_{\textit{end}}$, while its growth rate evolution aligns with absolute instability trends. By further incorporating nonlinear effects, it was observed that the global properties of the global nonlinear mode remain governed by ${\textit{Re}}_{\textit{end}}$. The global temporal frequency corresponds to ${\textit{Re}}_{\textit{end}}=471.8$. When ${\textit{Re}}$ approaches 517.2, the spiral waves spontaneously generate ring-like vortices, which subsequently trigger localised turbulence. This investigation provides novel insights into the fundamental mechanisms governing stability transitions in the rotating-disk boundary layer of the rotor–stator cavity.

Generative artificial intelligence (AI), particularly large language models, offers transformative potential for the management and operation of urban water systems. As water utilities face increasing pressures from climate change, ageing infrastructure and population growth, AI-driven tools provide new opportunities for real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance and enhanced decision support. This article explores how generative AI can revolutionise the water industry by enabling more efficient operations, improved customer engagement and advanced training mechanisms. It examines current applications, such as AI-integrated supervisory control and data acquisition systems and conversational interfaces, and evaluates their performance through emerging case studies. While highlighting the benefits, the article also addresses key challenges, including data privacy, model reliability, ethical considerations and regulatory uncertainty. Through a balanced analysis of opportunities and risks, this study outlines future directions for research and policy, offering practical recommendations for the responsible adoption of generative AI in urban water management to improve resilience, efficiency and sustainability across the sector.

The June 2016 extratropical cyclone with anomalous ENE storm wave direction caused widespread beach-foredune erosion in southeastern Australia. At Bengello Beach, erosion volumes were 97–108 m3/m for the central and southern parts of the beach, while the northern end only lost 18 m3/m of sand. In the central and southern parts of the embayment, a surf zone bar formed 50–100 m further seaward than is typical for this beach and was a temporary store of sand eroded from the beach-foredune. A nearshore wave model showed substantial variability in wave power along the 10 m depth contour and explained the partial sheltering of the northern end of the embayment from storm impact. An embayment-wide time-series of airborne LiDAR further emphasised the alongshore variability in beach-foredune erosion. The wide beach and broad, double-crested, well-vegetated foredune along much of the embayment was pivotal in protecting the shoreline. In the centre and south of the beach, recovery took nearly three years and although complete by volume, the foredune was narrower and less resilient. The results emphasise the role of wide beaches and natural vegetated foredunes in buffering extreme storms and suggest foredune rehabilitation should be a key management priority for sustainable coasts.

Can a fish-like body swim in a perfect fluid – one that is purely inviscid and does not release vorticity? This question was raised by Saffman over fifty years ago, and he provided a positive answer by demonstrating a possible solution for an inhomogeneous body. In this paper, we seek to determine a suitable deformation for oscillatory fish swimming that enables slight locomotion in a perfect fluid, relying solely on tail flapping motion. This swimming style, typical of carangiform and thunniform species, allows for a separate analysis of the tail’s interaction with the surrounding fluid. As a preliminary approach, the tail is approximated as a rigid plate with prescribed heave and pitch motions, while the presence of a virtual body placed in front is considered to evaluate the locomotion. Analytical solutions provide exact results while avoiding singular behaviour at sharp edges. A phase shift is shown to be strictly necessary for generating locomotion. A more refined approximation of a real fish is achieved by modelling the tail as a flexible foil, connected to the main body via a torsional spring with tuneable stiffness at the peduncle. While the heave motion remains prescribed, the pitch amplitude and phase are passively determined by flow interaction. A plausible solution reveals an optimal stride length as a function of dimensionless stiffness, driven by resonance phenomena. A small structural damping must be considered to induce a phase shift – essential for self-propulsion in the absence of vorticity release.

This study presents a modified intermediate long wave (mILW) equation derived from the Navier–Stokes equations via multi-scale analysis and perturbation expansion, aimed at describing internal solitary waves (ISWs) in finite-depth, stratified oceans. Compared to the classical ILW model, the proposed mILW equation incorporates cubic nonlinearities and captures the dynamical behaviour of large-amplitude ISWs more accurately. The equation reduces to the modified Korteweg–de Vries equation and modified Benjamin–Ono equations in the shallow- and deep-water limits, respectively, thus providing a unified framework across varying depth regimes. Soliton solutions are constructed analytically using Hirota’s bilinear method, and numerical simulations investigate wave–wave interactions, including rogue waves and Mach reflection. Furthermore, a smooth tanh-type density profile is adopted to reflect realistic stratification. Associated vertical modal structures and vertical velocity fields are analysed, and higher-order statistics (skewness and kurtosis) are introduced to reveal the density dependence of wave asymmetry. The results offer new insights into the nonlinear dynamics of ISWs, with implications for ocean mixing, energy transport and submarine acoustics.

We develop a weakly nonlinear theory to revisit the water hammer phenomenon resulting from slow valve manoeuvres. The hydraulic head at the valve is known to be nonlinearly coupled with the flow velocity via a relation derived from Bernoulli’s principle, so that solutions have been so far obtained only via numerical models. The governing equations and boundary conditions indeed yield a nonlinear boundary-value problem, which is here solved using a perturbation approach, Laplace transform and complex analysis. We obtain space- and time-dependent analytical solutions in all of the pipe and validate our results by comparison with standard numerical methods (i.e. Allievi’s method) for determining the exact behaviour of the hydraulic head at the valve. Additionally, we derive algebraic practically relevant closed form expressions for predicting the maximum and minimum hydraulic head values during both valve closure and opening manoeuvres.

This study quantitatively investigates the two-dimensional pseudosteady shock refraction at an inclined air–water interface, referred to as the water wedge, in the weak and strong incident shock strength groups. Numerical simulations are employed to validate the predicted refraction sequences from a previous study (Anbu Serene Raj et al. 2024 J. Fluid Mech. 998, A49). A distinctive irregular refraction pattern, referred to as the bound precursor refraction with a Mach reflection, is numerically validated in the weak shock group. Based on the numerical simulations, an enhanced formulation is proposed to determine the sonic line of the incident flow Mach number ($M_b$) in water, thereby providing an appropriate transition condition for an irregular refraction with a Mach reflection to a free precursor refraction with a Mach reflection transition. Furthermore, comparative studies on solid and water wedges of wedge angle $20^\circ$ reveal discernible differences in the shock reflection patterns. The interplay of the energy dissipation due to the transmitted shock wave and the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability at the air–water interface results in the variation of the triple-point trajectory and transition angles between single Mach reflection (SMR) to transitional Mach reflection (TMR) occurring in air.

The spatio-temporal evolution of very large-scale coherent structures, also known as superstructures, is investigated in both smooth- and rough-wall boundary layers by means of direct numerical simulations up to a frictional Reynolds number of ${\textit{Re}}_\tau = 3\,150$. One smooth-wall and four rough-wall cases are considered, all developing over a region as long as $\sim$60 times the incoming boundary-layer thickness in the streamwise direction. Bio-inspired, biofouling-type topographies are employed for the rough-wall cases, following the previous work of Womack et al. (2022 J. Fluid Mech. vol. 933, p. A38) and Kaminaris et al. (2023 J. Fluid Mech. vol. 961, p. A23). We utilise three-dimensional time series, as well as multiple two-point correlation functions along the boundary layer to capture the detailed length- and time-scale evolution of the superstructures. The results suggest that the presence of roughness significantly amplifies both the strength and the streamwise growth rate of superstructures. Interestingly, however, their ratios relative to the local boundary-layer thickness, $\mathscr{L}_{\!x}/\delta$ and $\mathscr{L}_z/\delta$, remain constant and independent of the streamwise coordinate, indicating that such scaled length scales might constitute a possible flow invariant. Volumetric correlations revealed that all cases induce structures inclined with respect to the mean-flow direction, with those over the rough-wall topographies exhibiting steeper inclination angles. Finally, via proper orthogonal decomposition, pairs of counter-rotating roll modes were detected and found to flank the high- and low-speed superstructures, supporting the conjecture in the literature regarding the mechanisms responsible for the lateral momentum redistribution. The latter also suggests that the way momentum organises itself in high Reynolds number wall-bounded flows might be independent of the roughness terrain underneath.

A prediction framework for the mean quantities in a compressible turbulent boundary layer (TBL) with given Reynolds number, free-stream Mach number and wall-to-recovery ratio as inputs is proposed based on the established scaling laws regarding the velocity transformations, skin-friction coefficient and temperature–velocity (TV) relations. The established velocity transformations that perform well for collapsing the compressible mean profiles onto incompressible ones in the inner layer are used for the scaling of such inner-layer components of mean velocity, while the wake velocity scaling is determined such that self-consistency is achieved under the scaling law for the skin-friction coefficient. A total of 44 compressible TBLs from six direct numerical simulations databases are used to validate the proposed framework, with free-stream Mach numbers ranging from 0.5 to 14, friction Reynolds numbers ranging from 100 to 2400, and wall-to-recovery ratios ranging from 0.15 to 1.9. When incorporated with the scaling laws for velocity transformation from Griffin et al. (2021, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci., vol. 118, e2111144118), the skin-friction coefficient from Zhao & Fu (2025, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 1012, R3) and the TV relation from Duan & Martín (2011, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 684, pp. 25–59), the prediction errors in the mean velocity and temperature profiles remain within $4.0\,\%$ and $6.0\,\%$, respectively, across all tested cases. Correspondingly, the skin-friction and wall-heat-transfer coefficients are also accurately predicted, with root mean square prediction errors of approximately $3 \,\%$. When adopting different velocity transformation methods that are valid for inner-layer scaling, the root mean square prediction errors in the mean velocity and temperature profiles remain below $2.3\,\%$ and $3.6\,\%$, respectively, which further highlights the universality of the proposed framework.