An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy

“Daoism” has been used to denote a range of quite different areas of focus, ideas and debates across different periods of time. The English term “Daoism” has been used to identify different groups, practices or doctrines that incorporate at some level the notion of dao (way, path). However, the criteria for inclusion are sometimes obscure and arbitrary. We briefly consider the varied meanings of the term “Daoism” before discussing some key themes in one of its basic texts, the Daodejing (also referred to as the Laozi, bearing the name of its alleged author). We consider the terms dao, de (potency), ziran (nature, spontaneity) and wuwei (unconditioned action) as well as some distinctive features of Daoist thought. We will also draw on some of these insights to consider their relevance to issues in contemporary philosophical debates.

In traditional scholarship, Daoism has often been juxtaposed against Confucianism, sometimes as if it was a negative reaction to the latter. Differences between the traditions and their ideas were first expressed during the pre-Han period, for example, in the Lüshi Chunqiu, where Confucius is said to have learnt from a “Lao Dan,” believed to be Laozi (Graham 1998: 28). In the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), Confucius, overawed by Laozi, describes him as a dragon (Shiji 63). Similar stories are found in the Zhuangzi and the Record of Rites (Li Ji) (Graham 1998: 25, 26). In the Zhuangzi, Confucius is sometimes caricatured as lacking in deeper, Daoist wisdom which embraces flexible and skilful responsiveness. As we cover the ideas associated with Daoism below, we need to be mindful that many of the ideas had developed and evolved through time in the hands of different thinkers, and at times were entangled with political motivations. For example, the hostility between Daoism and Confucianism may have been due in part to the way they were brought together by Han historiographers to justify their ideologies and secure their positions (Loewe 1999; Lloyd 2002: 126–47).

The Philosophy and Practice of the Daojia

This section outlines Daoism, understood as the philosophy and practice of the Daojia (Daoist-group), with sections on Huang-Lao Daoism and Lao-Zhuang, or “philosophical Daoism” to follow.