History and Systems of Psychology

The strong affinity between American and British intellectual thought has been forged through four centuries, beginning with the colonial period and continuing through decades of sharing a common language and cultural inheritance. The British influence, more than any other European movement, was a primary determinant in the development of psychology in the United States. This influence is readily apparent when we consider both the content and the methodology during the dynamic growth of American psychology since the beginning of the twentieth century. For this reason, the earliest expressions of modern psychological inquiry in Britain are of special significance.

Britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was an exciting place of political and economic progress as the nation moved steadily toward its position as the dominant power of the nineteenth century. The seventeenth century witnessed the consolidation of national interests in the British Isles (Map 9.1) under the monarchy and the established Church of England, both controlled by Parliament. The eighteenth century saw the extension of British influence throughout the world, with the American Revolution the only setback in colonial expansion. The writings of the epic poet John Milton (1608–1674) successfully challenged the British licensing regulations for censorship, which were abolished in 1694 by William III, and freedom of the press became a reality in Britain. English literature then entered a period of achievement through the writings of John Dryden (1631–1700), Daniel Defoe (1659–1731), and Jonathan Swift (1667–1745). The cause of science was also advanced by the intellectual freedom of Britain, and even the restored Stuart monarch Charles II (r. 1660–1685) favored scientists with his approval and support. As we have already seen in the brief biography of Isaac Newton, the policy of the British government and society rewarded scientific achievements and encouraged such efforts, seeing them as national assets.

Advances in Science

In mathematics, the spirit of Newton continued in England with the full development of the calculus. The British also made great strides in the application of mathematics in physics. Joseph Black (1728–1799), working at the University of Glasgow, did pioneer experiments in oxidation and discovered the exchange of heat in substances changing from liquid to gas and gas to liquid. A later scientist, James Watt (1736–1819), applied this principle in his improvement of the steam engine.