Grasslands are one of the major ecosystem types in drylands. Encroachment of shrubs into grasslands affects the functioning of drylands by altering community structure, with impacts exacerbated under greater intensity of encroachment. Yet, we have a limited understanding of how ecosystem structure responds to the degree of shrub encroachment. Here, we describe a field-based study designed to examine changes in ecosystem structure beneath shrub patches (patch condition) and between patches (spatial distribution pattern of patches) along a gradient in encroachment in a semiarid grassland in Inner Mongolia, China. We found that greater encroachment was associated with wider and taller shrubs with more branches. As shrub encroachment intensified, the area beneath shrubs had more litter and was less exposed to grazing. The landscape was characterized by more discontinuous patches of vegetation and more bare ground as encroachment intensified. Either the patch condition or the patch spatial pattern was shaped mainly by the magnitude of shrub encroachment rather than by the structure of individual shrubs (e.g., height and canopy width). Our study highlights the idiosyncratic response of ecosystem structure (patch condition and patch spatial pattern) to intensifying encroachment, reinforcing the importance of considering the degree of shrub encroachment when managing encroached grasslands.

In the Patagonian drylands, extensive sheep production coexists with guanaco, the most abundant native herbivore. While sheep’s impacts on vegetation are well known, guanaco effects remain poorly understood, limiting effective management. We evaluated the influence of both species on grassland regeneration at two representative sites by comparing areas grazed by sheep or guanaco and applying short-term herbivore exclusions. We analyzed pre- and post-dispersal soil seed banks in vegetated patches and bare soil, and measured seedling emergence and tiller production of dominant perennial grasses. The soil seed bank was dominated by annual species, and vegetated patches showed higher perennial abundance after seed dispersal, but no significant differences emerged between herbivores. Seedling emergence was similar for sheep and guanaco, increasing notably after short-term exclusion. However, perennial grass regeneration through tillering responded differently: guanaco exclusion enhanced tillering of Nassella tenuis and Pappostipa speciosa, whereas sheep exclusion produced no significant effect. Overall, most regeneration mechanisms showed comparable patterns under both herbivores. These findings suggest that, although guanaco and sheep exert similar pressures on seedling dynamics, guanaco grazing may differently affect perennial grass recovery. We emphasize the need for careful monitoring of guanaco stocking rates to ensure sustainable management of Patagonian shrub-steppe ecosystems.

Climate hazards impact pastoral communities due to their dependency on nature for their primary livelihoods. This study analyzes climate risk in ten pastoral livestock farming communities in Patagonia drylands of Argentina. A participatory impact chains (PICs) approach was used as a qualitative and participatory bottom-up methodology allowing for the identification and contextualization of climate hazards, exposure, intermediate impacts and vulnerability dimensions through knowledge co-production with local stakeholders. Results show that, although drought is the predominant climate hazard across the region, its impacts are heterogeneous and mediated by local socio-environmental conditions. The analysis underlines that vulnerability is not evenly distributed but is shaped by specific historical, political and environmental pathways. These findings challenge standardized top-down risk assessments, and highlight the need for adaptation strategies that are context-sensitive, territorially differentiated and that integrate local knowledge. The study also contributes to advancing qualitative participatory methodologies for climate risk assessment in pastoral systems in arid areas of Latin America, showing the regional heterogeneity and social inequalities.

Compost amendments are a promising tool for building productivity in degraded rangelands, but the effect on biological soil crusts (biocrusts), the surface microbial communities found in drylands, has not been investigated. Biocrusts contribute both carbon uptake and other ecosystem services in drylands. We investigated how 6.3 mm of surface-dressed compost at a Tribal rangeland in central New Mexico, USA, affected temperature, carbon and nitrogen characteristics, the relative abundance of biocrust microbial communities (fungi and bacteria) – specifically cyanobacterial communities – as well as the resulting aggregate stability at the soil surface after 1 year. Surface temperature maxima increased with compost addition in cooler ambient conditions, and the δ13C signatures of the soils from compost addition plots were >1‰ lighter compared to controls, indicating >35% of soil carbon was compost-derived, but organic C, total N percentage and aggregate stability did not differ among compost treatments. Several compost-derived taxa became indicator species in the amended plots, and compost addition decreased cyanobacteria relative abundance up to 58%. While previous results show that compost may benefit plants from a slow-release fertilization effect and soil carbon in deeper soil layers increases, there could be complex impacts on biocrust organic carbon with changing temperature and microbial community.

Drylands are increasingly degraded by livestock grazing, mining, recreation, off-road vehicles and wildfire. These disturbances damage biological soil crusts (biocrusts) that stabilize soil, cycle nutrients, and store carbon. Farming biocrust as transplantable “sods” offers a promising restoration approach, but invasive plants colonizing sods risk contaminating restoration areas. Manually removing invasives is labor-intensive and unreliable. To determine the viability of herbicide control of weeds while cultivating biocrust, we tested four herbicide treatments, hand-cutting and untreated controls on biocrust sods seeded with the rapidly invading Oncosiphon pilulifer (stinknet) and, later, native plants. We measured biocrust and stinknet cover, native seedling establishment and treatment costs. Late-successional biocrust (lichens, mosses and dark cyanobacteria) grew best under all herbicide treatments compared to controls. Post-emergent herbicides (aminopyralid and glyphosate) effectively controlled stinknet while allowing later native seedling establishment. Preemergent indaziflam prevented both stinknet and native plant establishment. Preemergent aminopyralid was less effective against stinknet. Post-emergent aminopyralid and preemergent indaziflam were most cost-effective and suitable for promoting or preventing native recruitment, respectively. Herbicide application to biocrust sods represents a significant advancement in making biocrust farming economically viable by reducing manual labor, while providing critical information for combating an emerging invasive species threat.

The rapid spread of non-native perennial grasses across South American savannas poses a growing threat to native plant diversity and ecosystem functioning. They disrupt key ecological processes, including fire regimes, nutrient cycling and plant community dynamics, driving the loss of functional diversity and the homogenization of native vegetation. This review compiles current knowledge on the ecological impacts of the nine most invasive perennial grass species in South American savannas and the challenges faced in controlling them, with a particular emphasis on the Brazilian Cerrado. We examine the mechanisms by which they outcompete native species, alter soil–plant interactions and inhibit natural regeneration. Particular attention is given to the ecological traits that confer competitive advantages to these invasive grasses under conditions of disturbance, increased nutrient availability and climate change. We also evaluate the challenges faced in the ecological restoration of invaded areas and discuss integrated strategies for controlling invasions and promoting the recovery of native species. This synthesis underscores the urgent need to address invasions by non-native grasses through coordinated research, new policies and management efforts aimed to safeguard the long-term biodiversity and ecological resilience of South American savannas.

Special soils with extreme properties form insular habitats often supporting endemic species and unique communities. An uncertainty is how these communities may change through time, such as during periods of climatic changes including droughts. On unique, gypsum-associated soils in the Mojave Desert, USA, we examined multi-decade change in plant communities, including conservation-priority, special-status species. Within our 18-year study period, different community features and components varied in their degree of stability or change among three measurement years (2008, 2020 and 2025). Community species composition, total plant cover, cover of gypsophiles associated with gypsum, and shrub density changed little, while turnover in most perennial forbs was high. Two conservation-priority perennial forbs, Anulocaulis leiosolenus and Arctomecon californica, declined in density by 86–100% between 2008 and 2025, though the species may persist in soil seed banks and have naturally cyclic population fluctuations. Despite our study encompassing an overall multi-decade dry period and a severe 2020–2022 drought, turnover in shrubs was minimal. Although dieback occurred, multiple metrics (e.g., species rank-abundance curves) of perennial community structure were stable. Results portray these gypsum-associated communities as exhibiting high temporal turnover in perennial forbs overall, concomitant with stable shrub components and community structure.

The grazing of livestock on arid and hyper-arid rangelands is the dominant land use across much of the Arabian Peninsula, and is a human activity of large historical, cultural, and economical importance. In this perspective, we outline the historical trajectory of pastoralism in the Arabian Peninsula, examine its transformation over the past century, and propose a framework for sustaining this practice amid contemporary environmental and social pressures. Our context is the seven countries that make up the Peninsula, but with an emphasis on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, given its size and geopolitical influence. A substantial part of Arabian rangelands is severely degraded due to overgrazing by goats, sheep and camels. This degradation has been accompanied by declines in customary pastoral and social practices such as al hima, which allowed rangelands to be grazed and managed sustainability for more than a thousand years. Major transformation in current pastoral practices is needed to ensure that Arabian rangelands continue to sustain people and ecosystems into the next century. An important need is to build capacity and capability in organisations and individuals charged with managing rangelands. This requires the establishment of programmes that include, but are not limited to, a greater investment in the science and management of pastoralism, including the need to develop and promote systems to monitor environmental change under different grazing practices. Rangeland management and conservation programmes should also aim to incorporate elements of traditional pastoral systems such as al hima, managed by local herders, to promote a more sustainable utilisation of rangeland resources. Together, it is hoped that these actions will create a core group of local scientists working on local solutions, with a reduced reliance on international experts. Finally, we advocate for a greater strengthening of communal governance of rangeland resources. This should include greater support for pastoral groups to ensure that land management is socially grounded, and co-investment in conservation and pastoralism. By linking science, tradition, and local empowerment, the Arabian Peninsula has the potential to lead a new era of sustainable pastoralism in the world’s arid and hyper-arid rangelands.

Arid rangelands can be highly productive, but are often degraded by human activity, particularly soil disturbance due to mining, overgrazing or unsustainable farming practices. A range of soil treatments is used to rehabilitate and restore degraded rangelands. These focus on the capture of water and wind-blown sediment to promote vegetation growth and soil stabilisation. We examined how moderately large human-constructed micro catchments altered soil surface temperatures in a pilot trial to explore their potential impacts on vegetation establishment. We found that temperatures at the base of the depressions (pits) were greater than those in the controls in both summer and winter, but only in the mornings. Under high daytime temperatures, however, the pits were always cooler than the controls. This moderating effect on surface temperatures likely provides a more suitable environment for plant establishment and growth.

This study extends the two-step stochastic metafrontier approach to multiple-output farms to investigate technology gap in the dryland areas of West Africa using cross-sectional data from randomly selected farmers in Ghana, Mali and Nigeria. Results show that Nigeria has a higher average metatechnical efficiency (MTE) with on average 64% for Nigeria, 46% for Mali and 28% for Ghana with the same trends for the metatechnology ratios (MTR). This implies that, from the dryland farming metafrontier, farmers in Ghana are technically inefficient than those in Mali, and both are technically inefficient than farmers in Nigeria. The comparison of the MTR with the country specific efficiency (TE) shows that, technical inefficiency with respect to the metafrontier in Ghana and Mali comes mainly from the technology gap than operating inefficiency, whereas it comes primarily from production inefficiency in Nigeria. Finally, analysis of the sources of inefficiencies suggests that country-specific policies and programmes that help reduce the gap and targeting the important drivers of efficiency such as household size and access to credit are needed to improve technical efficiency. Overall, this study shows that there is economic and food security gain in enhancing farmer managerial performance strategies in the dryland zone.