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This Element looks at artificial intelligence (AI) through the triple lens of history: histories are made about AI, humans use AI to make histories, and histories are made by AI. It explains how working with data from the past is critical to AI fields such as machine learning and looks at ways that AI algorithms – artificial historians – can be designed and improved. Examples of how AI can support historical research and education introduce a broader theoretical discussion on the value of historical reasoning for the design, review, and deployment of technologies. Harms arising from current AI technologies and AI research and development are considered, as well as the complexities of recognising AI in authorship and ethical frameworks and understandings of global interactions. It argues that seeing AI through the lens of history, and vice versa, and understanding the principles that shape both is critical for the future of the past.
Leo Tolstoy had a deep and long-lasting interest in Plato. This study looks at the way some particularly well-known Platonic themes can be found in War and Peace and Anna Karenina. The themes in question include the journey between the mundane and the eternal (most famously represented in the allegory of the cave), the theory of recollection, and the need to purify the soul of bodily passions. The study begins with an account of Tolstoy's interest in Plato and an overview of the three central themes as they appear in the Phaedo, Republic, Symposium and Phaedrus. It then turns to specific episodes in War and Peace and Anna Karenina where a central character experiences an epiphany or a similar process of inspiration. Cathartic in nature, these episodes show the character rising from a mundane level of experience towards an entirely new level, variously described as infinite, eternal or divine.
This Element revisits the unsettled relationship between (information) privacy and data protection, exploring why it remains elusive, complex, and often misunderstood. It does so by integrating conceptual, regulatory, and legal analysis. First, it identifies and discusses three conceptualisations of privacy in the literature, arguing that they should be understood complementarily rather than alternatively to provide a layered account of privacy. Second, it examines how each of these conceptualisations is reflected in the language and substance of key regional and international data protection frameworks. Third, it analyses their relationship through a legal lens, assessing the extent to which core data protection principles appear in human rights jurisprudence on the right to privacy. By bringing together these strands of analysis, it demonstrates that privacy and data protection overlap yet remain non-identical, and illustrates why their boundaries remain difficult to delineate. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Joseph Whitaker is best remembered today as the originator of Whitaker's Almanack, but he was also one of the most important publishers of the nineteenth century. As editor of The Bookseller, he had a panoramic view of the book trade and studied the commercial and structural forces that shaped its activities. His journal helped readers seize the opportunities and manage the risks of the increasingly competitive business culture and tried to foster a sense of pride within the community by encouraging booksellers and publishers to work together for their collective benefit. The publication of The Reference Catalogue of Current Literature in 1874, the most comprehensive collection of books in print and available for sale, was an indispensable guide for booksellers and, together with The Bookseller, created an indispensable communication and information service that remains at the heart of the book trade today.
Abdominal pain during pregnancy may be due to the physiological changes or to a pathological condition. A careful history and thorough clinical assessment are required. Pregnancy related disorders, such as ectopic pregnancy and rupture of a corpus luteum are often easy to diagnose; Others, such as ovarian cyst torsion, acute appendicitis and cholecystitis as well as some less common conditions may be more difficult to diagnose. Ultrasound scan is a key investigation, and diagnostic in most cases. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be required and is safe in pregnancy. Computerised Xray tomography (CT scanning) is not generally recommended as it involves radiation and has no compensating advantages. For surgery the laparoscopic approach is recommended and can be performed at any gestation, although it is particularly suitable in the second trimester. Anesthetic assessment, correct positioning of the patient and particular care during abdominal entry are important safety precautions. Most procedures can be performed by the gynecologist, though involvement of a general surgeon is advisable in cases where organs other than the reproductive tract are likely to be involved.
Why are some constitutions amended more frequently than others? Studies of amendment rates have been plentiful but have not generated much theoretical or empirical consensus because the extant literature rests rest on a strong and unwarranted assumption that social capacity to navigate amendment rules is constant across space and time. By contrast, the authors of this Element argue that this social capacity varies by civic connectedness. Drawing upon previous studies that find social capital mitigates transaction costs, this Element outlines the myriad ways in which social capital helps elites, social movements, and ordinary citizens solve the collective action problems associated with constitutional reform. The authors find evidence for their theory using a variety of measures, methods, and units of analysis.
This Element examines the forms of Arabic used by Christians in the early Islamic period in theological treatises and Arabic Bible translations. It argues that linguistic analysis of these texts not only clarifies the nature of early Islamic Arabic but also sheds new light on Christian institutional and intellectual culture. Focusing on nominal case, verbal mood, and gender and number agreement, the study challenges the common view that Christian authors wrote either flawed Classical Arabic or in a substandard register. Instead, it shows that their Arabic was typical of the early Islamic period. The Element also identifies differences in linguistic choices between theological treatises and biblical translations. After the Muslim conquests, Arabic was the language appropriate to both genres. The Element argues that Christians deftly and creatively adapted Arabic writing to their literary activities, in language appropriate to their different audiences.
Proto-Elamite is one of the world's earliest scripts and it remains only very partly deciphered. Excavations have uncovered c. 1,700 clay tablets from Iran, dating c. 3300–2900 BCE. The tablets use a complex system involving hundreds of symbols to count commodities, people, and institutions. Despite holding a privileged place in the history of writing, the study of proto-Elamite falls outside modern disciplinary boundaries and has received very limited scholarly attention since its discovery over a century ago. Nonetheless, a handful of scholars have shown that there is much we can learn about proto-Elamite and the people who used it, especially by taking interdisciplinary approaches. The ongoing decipherment project combines mathematics, a range of comparative studies, and a sustained effort to digitize the corpus and apply new tools from computer science.
Ancient apologetics is usually treated as a literary genre or a branch of early theology. This Element offers a different account. It argues that many Jewish and Christian texts conventionally labeled 'apologetic' are better understood through a bibliographic and archival lens: They produce authority not only by defending doctrines, but by organizing books, constructing corpora, mobilizing archives, and regulating interpretation. Tracing a trajectory from the Letter of Aristeas to Jerome's De viris illustribus, this Element shows how citation, collection, cataloguing, and textual ordering made traditions appear authoritative. Examining Aristeas, Josephus, Tatian, Justin, Origen, Pamphilus, Eusebius, and Jerome, it argues that apologetics is best understood as a form of curatorial power through which ancient communities learned to think with books. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.
This volume recovers early scandals of sexuality shaping the underground press in antebellum New York. In 'racy' newspapers, periodical editors used the form and content of their publications to curate, create, and circulate new ideas about emerging and established social forms, including sexual expression and intimacies. Editors reported obsessively on female sex workers' outspoken performances, wavering between the lurid fascination of exposé and the urge to celebrate singularly compelling and disposable women. This study contends with the uneven archiving of these scandalous materials, focusing on The Broadway Belle and Mirror of the Times (1855), edited by notorious “city mysteries” novelist George Thompson. This volume follows boasting performances of masculine potency and editorial proficiency. Sections chart the rise of personal mythologizing and self-reflexiveness as lingering conventions of professional editorship long after the racy papers faded away. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
A sound philosophy of mathematical physics balances a philosophy of mathematics with a philosophy of physics, sharpening the general applicability problem of mathematics by also taking care of: (i) the early modern `mathematization of the world picture'; (ii) the theory-laden character of the targets of mathematical models of modern physics; and (iii): Wigner's `unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences'. Guided by a historical survey, I propose that theories of mathematical physics are meaning-constitutive a priori constructions, conventional but far from arbitrary and best described as hypothetical. Their models subsequently mediate between theory and nature, that is, between the a priori and the a posteriori. Models mediate by playing the role of Wittgensteinian ian yardsticks or objects of comparison to be held against nature as represented by data models, where the comparison is made via surrogative inference. This balancing act compromises realism.
With reference to Kierkegaard's religious writings and other pseudonymous works, Kierkegaard's concept of anxiety is explored with a primary focus on the book The Concept of Anxiety. Anxiety itself is shown to be the eminent term for a moment in the human being's psychological development that Kierkegaard also discusses in other terms. In particular, it is the mode in which human being's apprehension of their possible freedom first appears in consciousness and, as such, is not to be confused with pathological anxiety, melancholy, or other negative states. At the same time, Kierkegaard regards human beings as typically failing to realize the possibility of freedom and when this happens anxiety becomes the trigger for despair or sin. The Element concludes by considering the influence of Kierkegaard on discussions of anxiety in Heidegger, Sartre, and Tillich and the relevance of his analysis to the contemporary crisis of social anxiety.
The number of international human rights institutions and countries participating in them has risen dramatically in recent decades, precipitating debates about why countries make such commitments and whether these commitments improve member's human rights behavior. These debates have centered on a small number of human rights treaties, with far less attention paid to the larger number of international organizations (IOs) that aim to promote human rights. The Element argues and then demonstrates that state decisions about joining these IOs depends on the institutional design of the organizations, specifically sovereignty costs for member states. These costs stem from the constraints that IOs impose and vary substantially. Emerging democracies are most likely to enter high sovereignty cost IOs. Furthermore, organizations that generate higher sovereignty costs tend to produce better human rights outcomes than those generating fewer sovereignty costs for all regimes. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Vegetarian Gothic analyses the representation of vegetarianism in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818), the World War I writings of Arthur Machen, and Han Kang's The Vegetarian (2007). These texts from different eras (and nations) are placed into critical dialogue through the application of ideas drawn from object-oriented ontology (OOO), and theories of ecological awareness. The vegetarian is represented in highly ambivalent ways. At one level the vegetarian is associated with Gothic otherness but also represented as potentially bringing together humans and animals in a complex holistic, utopian understanding of the natural world. This model of belonging to nature is at odds with a Gothic dystopia which seeks to demonise the radical potential of vegetarianism.
'Witness' is not merely an etymological trace but central to late ancient Christian understandings of martyrdom. Drawing on dual traditions of elite parrhesia, or free speech, and the torture of enslaved witnesses, martyrs testified through their suffering and deaths to their own worthiness, the tyrannical violence inflicted upon them, and the possibility of a more just world. Literature became the medium of this threefold witness. This study offers close readings of well-known martyrdom accounts from the period before the Great Persecution, including Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs, Acts of Justin, Letter of the Martyrs of Vienne and Lyons, Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas, Martyrdom of Polycarp, and Acts of Thecla. It highlights recurring themes of interrogation, torture, contest, sacrifice, and sexual violence, showing how these texts reflect on questions of power and agency, and concludes with an exploration of their contemporary relevance through the art of Kehinde Wiley.
Contemporary Nigerian English offers an engaging empirical exploration of Nigerian English in the twenty-first century, highlighting its historical development, present-day usage, and emerging linguistic features. Drawing on multiple sources of evidence, including naturally occurring language data, online corpora, social media discourse, and survey findings, the Element investigates how multilingualism, cultural diversity, and digital communication continue to shape the variety. It analyses salient features of Nigerian English across lexico-semantic, phonological, morpho-syntactic, and pragmatic domains, while also considering the language ideologies and attitudes that inform its perception and use. By integrating structural linguistic analysis and sociolinguistic perspectives, the Element reveals how Nigerian English reflects the cultural identities, communicative practices, and cognitive worlds of its speakers. In doing so, it advances scholarship on World Englishes and contributes to broader discussions of linguistic variation and change in contemporary global contexts.
The year 2024 marked a century since socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti's assassination. Widely commemorated in Italy, he's often remembered within a national narrative of antifascist resistance. But how was this narrative built and how has the far right responded? This Element traces the construction and mobilisation of Matteotti's memory over the last century, analysing the role of grief in the early antifascist movement, and identifying the role memory played in bringing together Allies, partisans and political parties during the construction of the democratic Republic. Based on primary sources from international archives, it also adds a transnational lens to the study of a figure so often thought of in national terms. The Element closes by examining how far-right parties whose lineage traces back to Mussolini's regime have engaged with the afterlife of a man whose murder is an evergreen reminder of the centrality of violence to Fascism in its earliest days.
What does it mean to be in the world with others? To what degree is sociality a dimension of our experience? This Element explores the social aspects of our experience as shared and common, focusing on Heidegger's thought on this theme in the period surrounding the publication of Being and Time. It begins by situating Heidegger's position in contrast to alternative phenomenological conceptions of the relations between self and others. From there, it continues to address a key challenge to Heidegger's approach: the problem of Dasein's individuation. Finally, in response to this challenge, the work reframes Heidegger's conception of sociality through the prism of part-whole relations. As social, Dasein emerges as a dependent part of an unfolding shared whole, yet as part of a complex social context, it retains its relative wholeness.
As China-United States competition over critical minerals intensifies, interest in deep-sea mining (DSM) in areas beyond national jurisdiction grows rapidly. However, who governs it? This Element offers a pioneering study of the relationship between global and national governance of DSM. Using a constructivist-interpretive approach, it unpacks the international DSM regime established under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which posits that the deep seabed is the 'common heritage of humankind', and contrasts it with the USA's preference for 'freedom of the high seas'. It explores how the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the USA and China interpret these social constructs' meanings when developing the DSM Mining Code. Although Washington's unilateral action to pursue DSM may speed up the finalisation of the Mining Code, the future of DSM remains uncertain due to mounting concerns about its commercial viability. A moratorium is emerging as the mainstream direction.