Practical electro-optic modulators are based on the Pockels effect. The electro-optic effects are generally discussed in the first section, and the Pockels effect is specifically addressed in the second section. The operational principles and characteristics of basic electro-optic modulators, including phase modulators, polarization modulators, and amplitude modulators, are discussed in the third section. In the fourth section, the structures, principles, characteristics, and advantages of guided-wave electro-optic modulators are discussed and shown through the forms of some well-established device structures, including Mach–Zehnder waveguide interferometers, directional coupler switches, polarization-mode converters, and traveling-wave modulators.
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