Parliamentary elections in 2023 brought in a discourse on debt. Power was passed from the Marin I to the Orpo I government. This was historically the most right-wing government to date in Finland, whose formation also took historically long but finally united both the populist-nativist right with the liberal right in the same coalition. The ministerial appointments raised questions among the opposition, and the issue of racism was discussed in connection to the coalition partners. The government's austerity policies sought to limit the power of trade unions, which in turn generated strong reactions. Proposals to limit strike action were faced with opposition. As the three largest parties shifted around, the political centre chose to remain in the opposition and also took issue with the underfunding of social services. The parliamentary polarisation formed a stark contrast to the consensual way in which Finland had approached North Atlantic Treaty Organisation membership, for which a compatible institutional setting was built.

In 2023, Switzerland's profound integration into the globalized world was particularly evident, fundamentally challenging the notion of political sovereignty. Yet, this interconnectedness also means that Swiss domestic rules strongly reverberate around the world, such as in the case of policy failure regarding financial regulation. This article explores how global developments shape Swiss politics, from campaign dynamics ahead of the 2023 federal elections to externally imposed legislative agendas. Even the notorious “Swiss” direct democracy no longer solely reflects citizen-initiated proposals as further evidenced that year. The article also underscores the inertia of Swiss-style consensus democracy in gearing up its institutional design for polycrisis. It concludes with a discussion of two major political issues: the collapse of Credit Suisse, one of Switzerland's two leading banks, which marks the most far-reaching shake-up of the global banking sector since the 2008 financial crisis, and a potential break-through in the longstanding stalemate in Swiss–EU relations.

The Dutch political landscape is notoriously unpredictable; yet, 2023 was the most turbulent year in Dutch politics in at least two decades. The year featured two elections—provincial and national—within nine months, each dominated by two distinct issues: agriculture and migration. These elections saw two different populist parties triumph with significant margins: the FarmerCitizenMovement/BoerBurgerBeweging won the provincial elections, while the radical right-wing populist Party for Freedom/Partij voor de Vrijheid secured a landslide victory in the parliamentary elections. Moreover, the year witnessed the collapse of the centre-right cabinet and leadership changes in more than half of the parties represented in parliament.

In 2023, Bulgaria saw the first regular, politically accountable, Cabinet after two years of caretaker cabinets following early elections in April. The election saw Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria (Grazhdani za evropeysko razvitie na Bulgaria, GERB) emerge as the plurality winner but without a clear majority, and a coalition government between GERB and We Continue the Change–Democratic Bulgaria (PP-DB) materialized. Seen as an artificially cobbled-together creation, the Cabinet faced increasing opposition and two failed no-confidence votes. A constitutional amendment in late 2023 limited the president's power to appoint caretaker cabinets. Bulgaria remained divided on its stance toward Russia and nationalism, and political apathy rose, casting doubt on future stability.

After a focus on global challenges, in the year 2023, domestic politics took centre stage in Germany. Notably, there was a rise in internal tensions within the ‘traffic light coalition’, especially regarding fiscal policy issues: The Free Democrats’/Freie Demokratische Partei (FDP) austerity clashed with the Social Democrats’/Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland (SPD) and the Alliance 90/Greens'/Bündnis 90/Die Grünen willingness to take on more debt for economic challenges. A key event was the Federal Constitutional Court's ruling that prohibited the reallocation of COVID-19 relief funds to the Climate and Transformation Fund, exposing budgetary constraints and repercussions on economic policy more broadly. The so-called Heating Act and debates on Child Basic Security were also important. The Alternative for Germany/Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) achieved notable electoral victories, while the Left Party's/Die Linke future is more uncertain than ever, having lost its parliamentary group status in the Bundestag due to a split. Regional elections were held in Berlin, Bremen, Bavaria and Hesse, contributing to this year's political dynamics.

In 2023, efforts to bridge the island's divide remained stagnant, though there was a notable development: the UN Secretary-General appointed a personal envoy to investigate the potential for restarting negotiations as the year drew to a close. On the domestic front, within the Greek-Cypriot-dominated Republic of Cyprus, the year was characterised by the presidential elections in February 2023 and their aftermath, alongside a persistent influx of migrants and asylum seekers to the island. In the northern part of the island, the de-facto state Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 2023 became the year of trauma and collective mourning for the Turkish Cypriots who lost 49 souls during the earthquake in Adıyaman, Turkey, in February.

France, in 2023, experienced continuing polarization. Unable to build a majority after the legislative elections of 2022 and facing a fragmented opposition with no capacity to propose an alternative majority, President Macron managed to sustain a minority government throughout the year. Outside of the parliamentary arena, polarization led to a series of social protests, particularly triggered by the pension reform and the immigration bills.

The year 2023 saw more stability in British politics, with new Prime Minister Rishi Sunak seeking to make his mark on the policy agenda with the announcement of five key policy pledges in January. As part of seeking to address these, the government placed an increased emphasis on immigration over the year, particularly in tackling illegal crossings over the English Channel. The government also moved away from its net zero agenda. Despite this, the party's poll position did not improve. New peers were introduced by departing Prime Ministers Johnson and Truss. Boris Johnson also stepped down as a Member of Parliament, and a November Cabinet reshuffle saw former Prime Minister David Cameron re-enter politics as Foreign Secretary.

The year 2023 was marked by a dense and turbulent political period. The country faced local and regional elections, snap elections and the reformulation of the left-wing coalition government. Spain also chaired the Council of the European Union during the second semester. The victory of the right (the Partido Popular and Vox) in the local and regional elections held in May in 12 regions (Autonomous Communities), precipitated the call for general elections in July 2023. This process culminated in the renewal of the Sánchez coalition government with support from the Basque and Catalan pro-independence parties and the exclusion of Podemos leaders from the new governing coalition. The decline of Podemos, the emergence of Sumar and the disappearance of Ciudadanos characterise the new Parliament. The reform of the law on sexual consent and the start of negotiations on a controversial amnesty law dominated the political agenda. In terms of the Spanish economy, the negotiation of an addendum to the National Recovery and Resilience Plan also stands out.

Abstract in second language

El año 2023 estuvo marcado por una agenda política densa y turbulenta. El país celebró elecciones locales y regionales, elecciones anticipadas y la reedición del gobierno de coalición de izquierdas. Además, España presidió el Consejo de la Unión Europea durante el segundo semestre. La victoria de la derecha (PP y Vox) en las elecciones locales y autonómicas, celebradas en mayo en doce Comunidades Autónomas, precipitó la convocatoria de elecciones generales en julio de 2023. Este proceso culminó con la renovación del Gobierno de coalición de Sánchez con el apoyo de los partidos independentistas vascos y catalanes y el descarte de los líderes de Podemos de la nueva coalición de gobierno. El ocaso de Podemos, la irrupción de Sumar y la desaparición de Ciudadanos caracterizan el nuevo Parlamento. la reforma de la ley sobre consentimiento sexual y el inicio de las negociaciones de una controvertida ley de amnistía dominaron la agenda política. En el plano económico también destaca la negociación de una adenda al Plan Nacional de Recuperación y Resiliencia.

Ireland had, for a long time, been an outlier in European politics in that, despite having experienced large-scale immigration in the 2000s, it had not seen a significant expression of anti-immigrant sentiment, and it was almost absent at a political level. The year 2023 saw a significant rise in the number of people seeking international protection or asylum. The state struggled to cope with the rise in numbers, which saw it take control of hotels and other private premises across the country. Protests grew in some localities, but the political reaction was negligible until in late November, there was a riot in Dublin city centre causing millions of euros worth of damage. There was an expected impact on Irish politics that might change the shape of politics in Ireland.

The government of Mette Frederiksen II took office on 15 December 2022, six weeks after the 1 November 2022 elections. Hence, expectations were high for this new type of government, a ‘cross-the-aisle’ majority, to get down to business. However, the government only used the majority to abolish a public holiday and has since then progressed only slowly on its agenda. It has been fairly unpopular with the electorate, losing up to a third of its support. The exits and defections in the Danish Parliament, Folketinget, continue to be higher than before 2019.

In 2023, Austria continued to experience low levels of democratic satisfaction. This was particularly beneficial for the populist right-wing Freedom Party of Austria/Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (FPÖ) in regional elections and opinion polls, as well as for parties not previously represented in the federal Parliament. After the regional elections in Lower Austria and Salzburg, the FPÖ assumed government responsibility and entered a coalition with the Austrian People's Party/Österreichische Volkspartei in both states. Approval ratings for the governing parties remained low. The Social Democratic Party of Austria/Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs concluded its long-standing internal directional debate with a change in leadership, albeit accompanied by mishaps. In terms of domestic policy, parties were able to reach a consensus, particularly on the abolition of official secrecy.

Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) continued to slide in public opinion polls in 2023, with Prime Minister Fumio Kishida's approval ratings never recovering from the scandal over the party's association with the controversial Unification Church that was exposed in the previous year. Kishida survived an assassination attempt in April, and the LDP's subsequent strong performance in by-elections helped to temporarily stabilise his leadership. However, the party faced a fresh scandal in November, when a police investigation into the misreporting and mishandling of ‘slush fund’ money by the LDP's major factions led to the removal of four senior Cabinet ministers and an even sharper decline in support for the Kishida administration. Rising consumer prices, due in part to a weakening of the Yen, were also a major concern throughout 2023, with inflation for the full year reaching 3.1 per cent, its highest level since 1981.

An unusually large number of political scandals left their mark on Norwegian politics in 2023. Most of the scandals involved conflicts of interest for current and former government ministers, and they led to several Cabinet resignations and dismissals. The local elections in September were a big win for the two main parties on the right of Norwegian politics. The two centre-left parties that constitute the national governing coalition fared poorly in the elections.

After several years of turbulence and instability, the political year of 2023 was comparatively quiet. The three-party right-of-centre government, relying on support from the Sweden Democrats through the Tidö Agreement, stayed in office and its ministerial composition remained completely unchanged. Sweden chaired the presidency of the EU council for the first half of the year, without controversy or notable events. The process for membership of NATO proved more difficult than expected and was not completed at the end of the year due to resistance from Turkey and Hungary. The economy slowed down but showed signs of recovery towards the end of the year.

In 2023, Portugal experienced the end of a political cycle of Socialist government rule that had started in 2014. Several scandals affected the executive throughout the year, including traffic of influence. There were also regional elections in Madeira on 24 September, which were won by the Social Democratic Party (Partido Social Democrata). At the end of the year, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa dismissed Prime Minister Antonio Costa. This still allowed the budget for 2024 to be passed in December, with the call for early legislative elections being postponed to the beginning of 2024.

There was no federal election in 2023 but change seemed to be in the air, as the official opposition Conservatives, under their new leader, made major gains in the polls and took a significant lead over the Liberals. Controversy over foreign interference in Canadian politics generated controversy, and foreign policy issues had an uncharacteristic impact on Canadian politics. The Liberal government responded with a major Cabinet shuffle, while by-elections left the party positions in the House of Commons essentially unchanged.

In 2023, the National Liberal Party prime minister was replaced with a Social Democratic Party prime minister, pursuant to an understanding drafted by the two ruling parties in 2021. As elections were scheduled for 2024, the government adopted populist measures benefiting selected voters. Opinion polls suggested the rise of right-wing parties. Prominent politicians and government officials were involved in corruption scandals.

The year 2022 was marked by the implementation of the Spanish Recovery and Resilience Plan approved by the European Commission in June 2021. Without a general election or changes in the Cabinet, only the main opposition party, the People's Party, experienced a change in leadership, when Pablo Casado resigned and was replaced by Alberto Núñez Feijóo. The political agenda was dominated by the approval of the Law on the Comprehensive Guarantee of Sexual Freedom, better known as the law of “only yes means yes,” the reform of the Criminal Code to remove the crime of sedition and reduce the penalties for embezzlement, and the change of the majority required for the renewal of the General Council of the Judiciary. In the international arena, the consequences of Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the celebration of the 30th NATO Summit in Madrid were the main issues.

The year 2022 was (again) a year of intense political change in Italy. The President of the Republic was (re)elected in January, Prime Minister Mario Draghi resigned in July, and new elections were held in September, amidst energy and economic crises, growing inflation and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The electoral victory of the centre-right coalition, and in particular the success of Brothers of Italy, not only marked the rise to power of a prominent European far-right party but also led to the nomination of the first female Prime Minister of the Italian Republic. The fall of Draghi's government and the formation of the first Meloni Cabinet raised questions about Italy's relationship with EU institutions, NATO and the transatlantic partnership.