In 2024, Romania organized elections at all levels. Those for the Romanian and European Parliaments saw increased support for anti-system, Euroskeptic, and sovereigntist parties, which together won over one-third of the vote. The Constitutional Court's annulment of the first round of presidential elections in December allowed for new presidential elections in early 2025. The unprecedented annulment was motivated by the alleged interference of unspecified foreign powers to promote Călin Georgescu, a virtually unknown independent candidate who won a plurality of votes in the first round with support from social media outlets like Tik Tok. The Court's decision was controversial because it was announced after the votes were counted, was not fully backed by evidence, and came from justices appointed by the very parties Georgescu took a stand against. The annulment became a veritable scandal both within and outside Romania.

The stalemate over the Cyprus question persisted in 2024. Apart from a single informal dinner between the two Cypriot leaders and the UN Secretary-General in New York, there was no meaningful dialogue—let alone any formal negotiations—despite the efforts of UN Envoy María Holguín, whose tenure ended in the summer of 2024. On the domestic front, within the Greek-Cypriot-dominated Republic of Cyprus, the year was marked by the European Parliament election where a YouTuber—Fidias Panayiotou—became third behind the conservative Democratic Rally (25 per cent), which maintained its two Members of the European Parliament (MEPS), and the communist party the Progressive Party of Working People (22 per cent), which lost one of its two MEPs. In the northern part of the island, the de-facto state Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 2024 witnessed a fake diploma and fraud scandal at a Turkish Cypriot university that reignited the debate on the problems in the Turkish Cypriot higher education sector. Internationally, Cyprus strengthened ties with the US via President Christodoulides’ White House visit.

The year 2024 was an eventful year that began with the abdication of the Queen. The European Parliament (EP) election returned a decent result for the government and resulted in a fragmented Danish representation in Brussels with 10 out of 11 parties represented in both Parliament and EP, and the 15 MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) spread across seven EP party groups. The government program saw some realization, in particular with initiatives on stronger defense, including conscription for women, and a “Green Partite” deal. New ministries focusing on Europe, Green Tripartite, and Prepping were formed and reflect the current challenges and priorities, as Denmark takes on EU chairmanship in the fall of 2025, climate change calls for actions also for the agricultural sector, and societal preparedness is called for, not least given the international political situation.

Following the 2023 national elections, the first half year of 2024 focused on negotiations between four parties from the centre-right to the radical right, resulting in the formation of the Schoof Cabinet. With an independent former top civil servant as Prime Minister, the new government proposed more stringent migration measures, budgetary discipline, democratic reforms and a long-term perspective for Dutch farmers, as well as a more open and transparent relationship between Parliament and the Cabinet. This marked the first time in over a century that the Prime Minister was not affiliated with one of the coalition parties. This arrangement paved the way for the most right-wing government in the Netherlands since the postwar era. In the second half of the year, however, the coalition's fragile nature became evident, as the Cabinet found itself on the brink of collapse on three separate occasions.

The year 2024 was a year of elections and voting in Ireland. It saw two government-initiated referendums fail. That caused the resignation of a Taoiseach (Prime Minister) and party leader and his replacement with a younger colleague as leader of Fine Gael. The following local and European elections crystallised the drop in support for Sinn Féin that polls had forecast in the previous year, while two of the governing parties’ support held up reasonably well. Probably because of the results of those elections, a general election was called at the end of the year. Though a government had not been formed by the end of 2024, it was clear that the new government would be a variant of the outgoing one, with the Green Party replaced by a number of independent TDs (Teachta Dala, MPs) supporting the government, with several independents serving as ministers.

Government-opposition confrontation intensified in Finland in 2024, with major reforms to welfare, labour and immigration policy introduced and passed through to legislation. The first half was marked by presidential and European elections. The tight race between two internationally known candidates, Alexander Stubb from the National Coalition Party/Kokoomus (KOK) and the Green politician Pekka Haavisto, in this decreasingly semi-presidential political system, was won by the liberal European Trans-Atlanticist Iron Man Stubb. The European elections were also won by KOK to the European People's Party on the theme of national security, and surprise results also brought three seats to the Left Alliance/Vasemmistoliitto. While the Social Democratic Party/Suomen Sosialidemokraattinen puolue only secured two seats, they led the polls by the end of 2024. The austerity measures made the Orpo I (KOK) government unpopular but mainstreamed the main junior partner Finns Party/Perussuomalaiset’s anti-migrant, welfare-chauvinist agenda despite their declining support.

In 2024, while Switzerland was no longer grappling with immediate crises, the lingering effects of an overlapping crisis remained evident. Public dissatisfaction grew, driven by perceptions that state interventions disproportionately favoured banks and large corporations, while the needs of ordinary citizens amid a cost-of-living crisis were sidelined. This contributed to a broader crisis of representation. This article examines how direct democracy functions as a channel for expressing such discontent, focusing on the historic approval of a popular initiative to increase public welfare spending despite a strained federal budget. It concludes with a discussion of three key political issues: the landmark European Court of Human Rights ruling in KlimaSeniorinnen and Others v. Switzerland, the domestic debate about austerity measures and the conclusion of negotiations on a new EU–Switzerland deal.

The year 2024 was marked by a series of significant electoral events in the Czech Republic, including elections to the European Parliament, the Senate, and regional councils. ANO 2011 emerged as the dominant political force across all three contests, while parties in the governing coalition, particularly the Czech Pirate Party and the Civic Democratic Party, experienced electoral losses. New political alliances, such as Přísaha (Oath) and Stačilo! (Enough!), secured representation in the European Parliament. The September regional elections were shaped by severe flooding in the Moravian-Silesian and Olomouc regions. Following poor electoral performances, the Czech Pirate Party exited the government, and Cabinet reshuffles ensued. Parliament enacted electoral reform by introducing voting by mail for citizens living abroad. The Senate elections altered the balance of power in the upper chamber, and leadership changes followed within the Czech Pirate Party and the Christian and Democratic Union–Czechoslovak People's Party.

German politics tends to be rather stable, yet 2024 marked a particularly volatile year with four major elections. In the state elections in Saxony, Thuringia, and Brandenburg, as well as the European Parliament (EP) elections, the parties of the federal governing coalition suffered heavy losses, while the radical-right Alternative for Germany (Alternative für Deutschland) and the newly founded left-conservative Alliance Sahra Wagenknecht (Bündnis Sahra Wagenknecht) made significant gains. Following the EP elections, German Christian Democrat Ursula von der Leyen (Christlich Demokratische Union) was re-elected as European Commission President. Amid a deepening economic recession and intensifying public controversy over migration that fuelled public discontent with the federal government, internal tensions within the coalition over fiscal policy ultimately culminated in a government crisis. In December, social democratic Chancellor Olaf Scholz (Social Democratic Party of Germany/Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands) initiated a vote of confidence, which he deliberately lost, prompting the collapse of the coalition. As a result, snap elections were scheduled for February 2025.

After a change of government at the 2023 elections, 2024 saw the new three-party coalition government of National, ACT and New Zealand First advance its policy agenda. Prime Minister Christopher Luxon's government continued to unwind many of the policy reforms of the previous Labour government, while making a range of rapid policy decisions. Its economic agenda delivered tax relief to the ‘squeezed middle’ and restored tax advantages to landlords but also cut public service budgets. While this policy programme caused significant consternation, opposition parties did not manage to offer clear alternatives. The government's actions in relation to Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi provoked substantial opposition and set up regular clashes with Māori leaders, most notably with the introduction of the Treaty Principles Bill late in the year.

Austria's political year in 2024 was shaped by a dense electoral calendar, including elections to the European Parliament, the National Council, and two regional parliaments. The populist right-wing Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) benefited notably, securing first place in three of these four elections (with the region of Vorarlberg being the exception). As a result, the FPÖ gained additional seats in legislatures at all levels, albeit with varying effects on executive power. While the FPÖ entered two regional governments—assuming the governorship in Styria—other parties refused to participate in any coalition involving the FPÖ at the national level. Breaking a longstanding tradition, Austrian President Alexander Van der Bellen therefore granted the mandate to form a government to the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP). The ÖVP subsequently initiated coalition talks with the Social Democratic Party of Austria and NEOS-The New Austria and Liberal Forum, which were still ongoing at the end of 2024.

In Spain, the year 2024 was marked by both regional and European elections and an increasingly difficult political environment for the left-wing governing coalition. The political agenda was dominated by these elections, an Amnesty Law, and several accusations of corruption around the governing Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) and President Pedro Sánchez. Sum Up proved its limitations as a leftist force beyond national elections, while competition on the right between the People's Party (Partido Popular, PP) and Vox parties continued, leading to Vox excluding itself from coalitions with the PP at the regional level. This will be remembered as the year in which a cold drop (DANA) hit Valencia with deadly results, unleashing a political crisis. Meanwhile, the Spanish economy and labor market performed well.

Following several years of opinion polling decline, Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) sought to draw a line under successive scandals with the election of a new leader, Shigeru Ishiba. However, the LDP-led coalition went on to lose its majority in the lower house for the first time since 2012 in the snap election that Ishiba immediately called, leaving him at the head of a minority government. The ruling party also faced internal divisions over his decision to exclude members implicated in scandals from candidate lists in the election. The Democratic Party for the People, formerly a rump party left over following mergers among mainstream opposition groupings, surged in this election, gaining significant attention for party leader Yuichiro Tamaki, while new far-right parties also made minor gains in the lower house for the first time.

Turmoil and gridlock have been two key features of 2024 in France. From a situation of minority government with no viable alternative, snap elections were called by President Macron. These elections resulted in a situation with no winner, all electoral blocks claiming victory, and none being able to form a government with a chance to survive. After a summer of Olympics and hesitations, a right-wing-oriented government emerged, building its strategy around the expected benevolence of the radical right Rassemblement National. The government proved one of the shortest-lived ever, incapable of passing a budget for the country.

The political year of 2024 was characterised by stability. The right-of-centre minority coalition stayed in office without serious challenges. There was a reshuffle in September, but the party composition and political direction of the government remained unchanged. Its reform agenda, with emphasis on migration and law and order, continued to be rolled out. The economy made a slight recovery, compared to 2023. Inflation went down, and public finances were in good shape. At the same time, Sweden took the final, history-making, step in the process of becoming a full member of NATO. The election to the European Parliament resulted in what is best described as status quo. The Green Party changed female spokesperson. The law on gender was changed, and the framework for fiscal policy was amended.

This entry deals with developments in the electoral arena, coalition politics, and within political parties in Bulgaria. In 2024, Bulgarian politics remained marked by instability, fragmentation, and public distrust, mirroring 2023. The collapse of the coalition Cabinet and two election rounds left incumbent Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria dominant, while We Continue the Change–Democratic Bulgaria declined in influence, despite sharing the incumbency position. Smaller parties faced leadership and organizational challenges, complicating coalition-building. A key political fault-line centered on DPS leader Delyan Peevski, who remained influential despite being sanctioned under the US Magnitsky Act. Despite internal strife, Bulgaria achieved progress toward EU integration, joining Schengen and advancing Eurozone accession. However, Euroskepticism grew, fuelled by pro-Russian sympathies among some parties. Contentious issues such as LGBTQ+ rights, migration, and domestic violence continued to polarize society and dominate political debate.

In 2024, Israel faced profound political and military upheaval. The Gaza war persisted throughout the year, expanding to direct confrontations with Hezbollah and Iran, while Houthi attacks intensified regional instability. Domestically, the government fractured: The New Hope faction split from Benny Gantz's National Unity alliance, and both parties exited the coalition at different times. Meanwhile, mass protests continued over the government's wartime conduct and hostage negotiations, and tensions surrounding military service exemptions deepened societal divisions. Despite partial economic recovery, GDP growth remained sluggish at 0.9 per cent, with inflation rising to 3.2 per cent and major credit agencies downgrading Israel's rating. Institutional developments included a landmark Supreme Court ruling asserting judicial review over Basic Laws, sparking ongoing battles over democratic governance. No parliamentary elections were held, but significant municipal elections took place. War, leadership crises, internal polarization, and widespread demands for accountability and reform defined Israeli politics in 2024.

Rather than a widely expected autumn election, Prime Minister Rishi Sunak called one to be held on 4 July. His Conservative Party were reduced to just 121 seats, and Labour leader Sir Keir Starmer became the new Prime Minister. The change in administration led to some significant policy shifts towards the latter half of the year—in particular, the scrapping of the Rwanda scheme to tackle immigration. The new Chancellor, Rachel Reeves, held a budget in October that criticised the economic management of the previous government and scrapped winter fuel payments for pensioners.

Slovenian voters were asked to decide on several topics at consultative referenda in 2024 alongside the European Parliament (EP) election, all held in June. The year brought mixed feelings concerning the coalition government. These ranged from several changes in ministerial positions, quite low support for individual government parties at the EP election, entanglement in corruption(-risk) affairs, a confrontation with doctors being on strike and judges protesting, to victory at all four referenda and certain progress with the promised reforms. The whole of Slovenian politics at the end of a year became embroiled in a farce with respect to the referendum on expanding the Krško nuclear power plant that, after it was called, was later abandoned. Politics was clearly divided on the question of recognising Palestine, whereas the party arena saw the (announcement) establishment of several new parties.

On 25 April 2024, Portugal celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Portuguese Revolution of Carnations, which led to the establishment of democracy in the country. Commemorations took place throughout the year. Moreover, it was a super year of legislative elections and subnational elections in the Azores and Madeira. On top of the national- and subnational levels of electioneering, there were also European Parliament elections. A new minority government came into office under Prime Minister Luis Montenegro.