We experimentally investigate the structure and evolution of planar, inertia-dominated intrusions from a constant source into linearly stratified ambients that are either quiescent or uniformly flowing. The source is either a negatively buoyant plume or a diffuser at the level of neutral buoyancy. The intrusions generated by plumes in a quiescent ambient form self-similar wedges, with constant thickness at the source $(2.5\pm 0.3)\sqrt {Q/N}$ and the wedge lengthening in time $t$ as $(0.32\pm 0.03)\sqrt {\textit{NQ}}\,t$, where $N$ is the buoyancy frequency, and $Q$ is the areal supply rate. In a flowing ambient, the intrusions remain self-similar with the same functional dependence on parameters. However, they become increasingly asymmetric as the ambient flow speed increases, and for speeds greater than approximately $0.3\sqrt {\textit{NQ}}$, there is no upstream propagation. Intrusions generated by diffusers are structurally different and not clearly self-similar. Immediately adjacent to the source, they thicken significantly through a turbulent, entraining hydraulic jump. Beyond this is a gently thinning region that lengthens over time. Ahead of this is a more rapidly tapering nose. Both the area of these intrusions and the front positions increase as power laws in time, with exponents between $0.6$ and $0.7$. With an ambient flow, this overall structure persists with asymmetry. We compare our experimental observations for plume-generated intrusions with predictions from the intrusive shallow-water model of Ungarish (2005, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 535, pp. 287–323). The model explains some of the observed behaviours, but does not provide an accurate description of the thickness profiles.

The high-Rayleigh-number asymptotic behaviour of three-dimensional steady exact coherent states (ECS) in Rayleigh–Bénard convection is studied. The steady square and hexagonal convection cell states, whose horizontal scales are optimised to maximise Nusselt number, persist into the Rayleigh-number regime where a clear asymptotic trend emerges. A detailed asymptotic analysis of the governing equations reinforces that this trend persists in the limit of infinite Rayleigh number, with the corresponding Nusselt number following the classical scaling to leading order. The optimised Nusselt number of the three-dimensional ECS far exceeds that of the two-dimensional roll solutions, which are believed to bound currently available experimental and simulation results, reaching nearly twice the typical experimental values. This is an interesting result from an applied perspective, although our solutions are unstable at high Rayleigh numbers.

In the decay region around the centreline of three qualitatively different turbulent plane wakes, the turbulence is non-homogeneous and two-point turbulent diffusion counteracts the turbulence cascade all the way down to scales smaller than the Taylor length. It is found that the sum of the inter-space transfer rate and the horizontal part of the inter-scale transfer rate of horizontal two-point turbulent kinetic energy is approximately proportional to the turbulence dissipation rate in the inertial range with a constant of proportionality between $-0.6$ and $-1$ depending on wake and location within the wake, except at the near-field edge of the decay region.

In the Patagonian drylands, extensive sheep production coexists with guanaco, the most abundant native herbivore. While sheep’s impacts on vegetation are well known, guanaco effects remain poorly understood, limiting effective management. We evaluated the influence of both species on grassland regeneration at two representative sites by comparing areas grazed by sheep or guanaco and applying short-term herbivore exclusions. We analyzed pre- and post-dispersal soil seed banks in vegetated patches and bare soil, and measured seedling emergence and tiller production of dominant perennial grasses. The soil seed bank was dominated by annual species, and vegetated patches showed higher perennial abundance after seed dispersal, but no significant differences emerged between herbivores. Seedling emergence was similar for sheep and guanaco, increasing notably after short-term exclusion. However, perennial grass regeneration through tillering responded differently: guanaco exclusion enhanced tillering of Nassella tenuis and Pappostipa speciosa, whereas sheep exclusion produced no significant effect. Overall, most regeneration mechanisms showed comparable patterns under both herbivores. These findings suggest that, although guanaco and sheep exert similar pressures on seedling dynamics, guanaco grazing may differently affect perennial grass recovery. We emphasize the need for careful monitoring of guanaco stocking rates to ensure sustainable management of Patagonian shrub-steppe ecosystems.

An experimental investigation of separation bubble shaped control bumps for oblique shock wave–boundary-layer interactions was performed in two supersonic wind tunnel facilities at Mach 2.5 and 2, with incident shock deflection angles of $8^\circ$ and $12^\circ$, respectively, and momentum thickness Reynolds numbers of approximately $1.5 \times 10^4$. Shock control bumps were designed to replicate the time-averaged separation bubble shape, and were placed onto the floor in the separation location. This resulted in almost complete elimination of flow separation. There was also a marked improvement in the downstream boundary-layer state. A low-frequency bubble breathing oscillation was identified in the baseline interaction using high-speed shadowgraphy and particle image velocimetry measurements. This oscillation was strongly suppressed in the controlled interactions. Velocity fluctuations in the downstream boundary layer were also significantly reduced. We propose that the key mechanism by which flow separation is eliminated is by breaking down the overall pressure rise into smaller steps, each of which is below the separation threshold. A key feature is the bump crest expansion fan, located near to where the incident shock terminates, which negates the shock induced pressure jump. Thus, the precise bump geometry is critical for control efficacy and should be designed to manage these pressure rise steps as well as the expansion fan strength and location with respect to the incident shock wave. The length of the bump faces must also be sufficiently long for the boundary layer to recover between successive adverse pressure jumps.

Spectral turbulence models commonly used in the design and certification of wind turbines have only been validated at heights up to 70 m in the atmosphere, but many offshore wind turbines now operate at heights above 150 m. Moreover, there is a lack of measurement data on the spatial structure of turbulence at such heights in the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MBL). Consequently, it is uncertain whether these turbulence models are valid for the design of tall offshore wind turbines. To fill this gap, we present measurements of one-point auto-spectra and two-point spectral coherence at heights of 150–250 m and lateral separations up to 241 m providing lateral coherence of turbulence in the MBL that has never been measured before for these heights and separations. Five light detection and ranging (lidar) instruments were deployed on the west coast of Denmark, and we reconstructed the along-wind and cross-wind components at the lidar beam intersection points. The measurements were compared with the theoretical predictions of auto-spectra and lateral coherence from the Mann model and its extension, the Syed–Mann model. The latter models turbulence down to frequencies of 1 h$^{-1}$ through the $-5/3$ scaling observed in the mesoscale range. The results show that the Mann model did not compare well with the measurements under stable and near-neutral conditions. On the other hand, the Syed–Mann model predicted the lateral coherence for a range of different conditions. However, the lateral coherence was under predicted in about $8\,\%$ of the data, possibly due to gravity waves. We believe that the high coherence from mesoscale turbulence at these heights can influence the loads on floating wind turbines and large offshore wind farms.

The interaction of an object with an unsteady flow is non-trivial and is still far from being fully understood. When an aerofoil or hydrofoil, for example, undergoes time-dependent motion, nonlinear flow phenomena such as dynamic stall can emerge. The present work experimentally investigates the interaction between a hydrofoil and surface gravity waves. The waves impose periodic fluctuations of the velocity magnitude and orientation, causing a steadily translating hydrofoil to be susceptible to dynamic stall at large wave forcing amplitudes. Simultaneous measurement of both the forces acting on the hydrofoil and the flow around it by means of particle image velocimetry (PIV) are performed, to properly characterise the hydrofoil–wave interaction. In an attempt at alleviating the impact of the flow unsteadiness via passive flow control, a bio-inspired tubercle geometry is applied along the hydrofoil leading edge. This geometry is known to delay stall in steady cases but has scarcely been studied in unsteady flow conditions. The vortex structures associated with dynamic stall are identified, and their trajectories, dimension and strength characterised. This analysis is performed for both straight- and tubercled-leading-edge geometries, with tubercles found to qualitatively modify the flow behaviour during dynamic stall. In contrast to previous studies, direct measurements of lift do not evidence any strong modification by tubercles. Drag-driven horizontal force fluctuations, however, which have not previously been measured in this context, are found to be strongly attenuated. This decrease is quantified and a physical model based on the flow observations is finally proposed.

Triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS)-based media (a type of metamaterial) are defined by mathematical expressions, which are amenable to additive manufacturing, and are finding increasing practical applications owing to their porous nature. We present experimental pressure drop measurements for a range of velocities spanning laminar to turbulent regimes for three TPMS geometries – gyroid, primitive and body-centred cubic (BCC) – with different porosity, unit cell length and surface finish. Dimensional Darcy and Forchheimer permeabilities are estimated via quadratic fitting for the gyroid geometry, which closely resembles random packed porous media. Subsequently, the non-dimensional drag (${\kern-0.5pt}f$) is plotted against Reynolds number ($Re$) yielding distinct curves for each case. The lack of collapse stems from varying definitions of pore diameter, complicating comparisons across porous media (not just TPMS). Therefore, a method is developed to estimate an equivalent hydraulic diameter $d_{{H\hbox{-}\textit{equ}}}$ from pressure drop data by matching the laminar drag $f$ of packed spheres via the Ergun equation, allowing the collapse of all porous media $f-Re$ curves in the laminar regime. The value of $d_{ {H\hbox{-}\textit{equ}}}$ is related to the ‘true’ Darcy permeability defined strictly in the linear regime (unlike permeability from quadratic fitting). We observe an approximate linear relationship between the $d_{ {H\hbox{-}\textit{equ}}}$ and the hydraulic diameter for self-similar TPMS configurations. The common basis of $d_{ {H\hbox{-}\textit{equ}}}$ allows intercomparison of TPMS geometries, and shows that BCC achieves significant drag reduction compared with packed spheres in the turbulent regime partially because of their open tube-like structure, whereas some configurations show drag increase. Although gyroid can be represented using the traditional quadratic drag law, primitive and BCC show an increase in $f$ with increasing $Re$ immediately before transitioning to fully turbulent regime – akin to rough-wall pipe flows, likely owing to their periodic streamwise elongated open structures.

A linear theory for unsteady aerodynamic effects of the actuator line method (ALM) is developed. This theory is validated using two-dimensional ALM simulations, where we compute the unsteady lift generated by the plunging and pitching motion of a thin aerofoil in uniform flow, comparing the results with Theodorsen’s theory. This comparison elucidates the underlying characteristics and limitations of ALM when applied to unsteady aerodynamics. Numerical simulations were conducted across a range of chord lengths and oscillation frequencies. Comparison of ALM results with theoretical predictions shows consistent accuracy, with all Gaussian parameter choices yielding accurate results at low reduced frequencies. Furthermore, the study indicates that selecting a width parameter ratio of $\varepsilon /c$ (the Gaussian width parameter over the chord length) between 0.33 and 0.4 in ALM yields the closest alignment with analytical results across a broader frequency range. Additionally, a proper definition of angle of attack for a pitching aerofoil is shown to be important for accurate computations. These findings offer valuable guidance for the application of ALM in unsteady aerodynamics and aeroelasticity.