In recent years, time-restricted eating (TRE) has gained popularity as a strategy for weight loss and metabolic health(1). TRE is associated with a spontaneous reduction in energy intake, comparable to calorie restriction diets(2). Beyond energy intake, there is a lack of robust research into the effects of engaging in TRE on diet composition, quality and eating behaviours(3). Such measures have been included as secondary outcomes or in analyses of pre-existing data in a small number of studies, with inconsistent results. Moreover, there is a lack of research on the effect of TRE on the nutritional status of vegans, who are already at risk of several nutrient deficiencies(4). The overall aim of this study is to compare the effect of TRE on diet composition and quality, and eating behaviours in people following a vegan and an unrestricted diet. The aim of this abstract is to present preliminary findings on the effect of TRE on those following an unrestricted diet.

In this ongoing pre- and post- design, healthy adults following a vegan or an unrestricted diet undertake TRE for four weeks, consuming all their meals within an 8-hour window (12pm-8pm) with calorie-free drinks allowed during the fasting window only. Participants are trained to complete food diaries and asked to record 3-day intake at baseline and in weeks 2 and 4 of TRE. Diet composition is analysed using Nutritics nutrition analysis software.

Preliminary results from twelve participants with an unrestricted diet (33.6 ± 12.4 yrs, 10 female) who have completed the study to date show a significant reduction in energy intake from baseline by week 4 of TRE (p=.003). Participants consumed less fat (p=.025), saturated fat (p=.019), carbohydrate (p=.0009) and sugar (p=.009) in week 4, however, there was no significant difference from baseline when intake was expressed as a proportion (%) of energy intake. There was a reduction in absolute (grams per day) and relative (grams per kilogram per day) protein intake at week 4 (p=.003 and p=.004), as well as in fibre consumption (p=.034). Data from vegan participants is not reported due to insufficient numbers recruited to date.

The simplicity of ‘watching the clock’ makes TRE an appealing approach for weight loss. Nevertheless, diet quality remains an important aspect of metabolic health but one which has been understudied in this context. Our preliminary findings indicate that the reduced eating opportunities during TRE may result in complex changes in diet composition. The reduced fibre consumption, which was already below the recommended daily intake at baseline, suggests that TRE may lead to detrimental changes to certain indicators of diet quality. Analysis of the full dataset will elucidate whether a vegan diet may predispose to a greater risk of disadvantageous changes to diet quality in comparison to those undertaking TRE with an unrestricted diet at baseline.

Background and objectives: Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a public health challenge among pregnant women in low-and middle-income countries and has been linked to maternal anemia and adverse birth outcomes, such as preterm delivery, intrauterine growth restriction, and low birthweight(1,2). In the Free State Province of South Africa, there is limited information on the vitamin A status of pregnant women and its link with birth outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the vitamin A intake and status of pregnant women in the Free State, as well as the associations between vitamin A status and anemia, iron status, and birth outcomes.

Venous blood was taken cross-sectionally from 427 pregnant women to measure biomarkers of vitamin A status (retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4)), iron status (ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor), anaemia (hemoglobin (Hb)), and inflammation (C-reactive protein (CRP) and α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP)). Sociodemographic information, HIV exposure, birth outcomes (including birth weight and gestational age at birth), and dietary vitamin A intake data were collected using a structured questionnaire in a one-on-one interview. Plasma RBP4 and ferritin concentrations were adjusted for inflammation using the Thurnham correction method based on CRP >5 mg/L and AGP >1 g/L(3). Multiple linear regression models were used to determine the association between vitamin A status and anaemia and iron status, as well as birth outcomes. Ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor concentrations were log-transformed in the regression model. Ethics approval was obtained from the University of the Free State Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee.

At a median gestational age of 32 weeks, the median dietary intake of vitamin A was 1007 µg RAE/d, with 19% of participants having an intake below the estimated average requirement of 550 µg/d. Median (IQR) plasma RBP4 concentration was 1.66 (0.90) µmol/L, with 90.4% having adequate vitamin A status (i.e., RBP4 ≥ 1.05 µmol/L), while 8.7% were vitamin A insufficient (i.e., RBP4 < 0.7 - <1.05 µmol/L), and 0.9% were vitamin A deficient (i.e., RBP4 < 0.7 µmol/L). Hb and ferritin concentrations were higher among participants with adequate vitamin A compared to those with insufficient or deficient vitamin A levels (11.2±1.46g/dL, vs 10.7±1.69g/dL, p=0.033) and (23.2 (13.28, 40.53) μg/L, vs 18.5 (8.72, 28.46) μg/L, p=0.022), respectively. Plasma RBP4 was positively associated with Hb (β=0.360, 95%CI: 0.181-0.539, p <0.001) and ferritin (β=0.316, 95%CI: 0.096-0.536, p=0.005). No significant associations were observed between plasma RBP4 and soluble transferrin receptor, birth weight, or preterm birth.

The prevalence of VAD was low in this sample of pregnant women. However, the positive association between plasma RBP4 and Hb as well as ferritin concentrations highlights the importance of adequate vitamin A status in preventing maternal anaemia and iron deficiency in pregnancy.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines a preterm infant as a baby born alive before 37 weeks gestation(1). In comparison with term infants, they can require substantially longer hospital stays and face an increased risk of complications(1,2). The experience of preterm birth places considerable emotional and psychological strain on parents(3). Parents of preterm infants can experience higher rates of anxiety and depression due to concerns around their infant’s health and the unexpected, traumatic nature of preterm birth(4).

The aim of this study was to investigate the challenges parents of preterm infants, face throughout the preterm journey. A sample of 154 parents who had a preterm infant within the past three years were recruited via an online parenting platform, Everymum.ie, and completed a 39-item questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were carried out using IMB SPSS Version 29.

The majority of participants were female (90%) and 54% were aged between 35-44 years. Preterm infants were categorised by birth weight, and 82% of the sample were classified as Low Birth Weight (LBW). Regarding delivery experience, 68% of parents reported an unexpected delivery (less than one week’s notice), with 51% (n=78) of the sample receiving less than 24 hours of notice. In contrast, 32% (n=50) had at least one week’s notice (expected delivery). Among those with expected deliveries, 34% (n=17) felt they did not receive adequate information before birth. The topics of interest to these parents included Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) information, education on preterm infants, and emotional support. The most reported health challenges infants experienced were respiratory issues, jaundice, feeding issues, growth and cardiac issues. Parents identified their main challenges as emotional distress, separation from their infant, disruption to the family unit, difficulties with healthcare professionals (HCPs) and feeling generally unsupported.

This study not only highlights the potential challenges that both preterm infants and their parents can face, but also areas of support and education that could be addressed to ensure parents of preterm infants feel supported throughout their journey.

Data demonstrating a reduction in the incidence of nosocomial legionellosis following chlorine treatment are limited. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of chlorine treatment by comparing the incidence of nosocomial legionellosis before and after the installation of a chlorine concentration control system.

A quasi-experimental study.

A 2,700-bed tertiary care hospital in Seoul, South Korea.

An automatic chlorine concentration control system was sequentially installed in the hospital’s water supply networks across multiple buildings between April 2019 and February 2020. The preintervention period was defined as January 2011 through March 2019, and the postintervention period as May 2020 through November 2025. Incidence rates of nosocomial legionellosis were compared between the two periods using exact Poisson methods.

The incidence of nosocomial legionellosis was found to be 0.402 per 100,000 patient-days during the preintervention period and 0.181 per 100,000 patient-days during the postintervention period. The incidence rate ratio for legionellosis during the postintervention period compared with the preintervention period was 0.45 (95% confidence interval, 0.18–1.01; P = .043).

The implementation of chlorine treatment in the hospital water distribution system was associated with a significant reduction in the incidence of nosocomial legionellosis. This finding provides long-term, real-world evidence supporting chlorine treatment as an effective water management strategy for preventing healthcare-associated legionellosis.

Nutrition is critical for health, performance, and recovery in sport, especially in energetically demanding sports such as rowing(1). Despite growing awareness of sport nutrition, athletes often struggle to translate nutrition knowledge into practical application which may be compounded by limited culinary skills regarding food preparation and meal planning(2,3). This gap in knowledge is prevalent in grassroots sport, whereby access to tailored education, resources and support is limited. The aim of this study was to evaluate project MILKSHAKE (Meal preparation, Intake, Learning and Knowledge: Sports nutrition for Health and Application of Knowledge for optimising Energy) , which delivered practical sports nutrition and culinary workshops at Fulham Reach Boat Club (FRBC) in London, UK.

Ethics approval was received from King’s College London (MRA-24/25-45982). Four tailored 1-hour culinary nutrition workshops were delivered with youth (16-18 y) and adult (> 18 y) recreational-level rowers. Sessions were co-led by a registered nutritionist (CVG) and two-time Olympic medallist rower (TJEG). Each workshop combined knowledge exchange regarding sports nutrition education, dietary habits and meal preparation, contextualisation of learnings within elite sport and a hands-on cooking activity (“milkshake” smoothie preparation). Pre- and post-workshop surveys were adapted from validated tools to assess sports nutrition knowledge, cooking confidence, and food behaviours(4,5). Post-workshop feedback captured participants’ perceptions of MILKSHAKE and priority themes for future learning.

A total of 72 athletes participated in MILKSHAKE, of which 47.2% (n=34) completed the pre and post workshop surveys. Adult rowers (n=12) demonstrated strong baseline culinary knowledge but limited sports nutrition literacy and expressed a preference for accessible self-paced resources rather than additional live workshops due to time availability. Accordingly, a suite of educational materials was created, including guides on training fuelling, race-day nutrition, recovery strategies, and female athlete health that were embedded within the FRBC Membership Handbook and distributed via QR codes.

Youth rowers (n=22) demonstrated a weak culinary knowledge and sports nutrition literacy at baseline, but a high motivation to learn. Survey findings revealed links between nutrition, perceived performance, and independence. Post-workshop feedback was highly positive: 95% cited smoothie-making as the session highlight, 98% wanted to learn more about sports nutrition, and 92% expressed a desire to improve their cooking skills.

MILKSHAKE improved sports nutrition awareness, cooking confidence, and engagement among adult and youth rowers. Embedding practical, evidence-based resources into a grassroots setting may facilitate better nutrition support for long-term dietary behaviour changes and performance optimisation. This model demonstrates the value and feasibility of integrating culinary education within grassroots sport, offering a scalable approach to enhance athlete health and development.

Honey is a natural sweetener with recognized therapeutic properties(1). Its quality, defined by key physicochemical parameters, is critical for consumer safety and market value(1,2). Sidir honey is highly popular in Saudi Arabia yet concerns remain about adulteration and quality degradation(3). This study evaluated the quality of Sidir honey in Jeddah, comparing results with international and regional standards

Forty-five Yemeni Sidir honey samples were collected from various retail outlets in Jeddah. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), reducing sugar, acidity, and moisture content were analyzed following standardized methods(4,5), and results were compared with Codex Alimentarius and Gulf Standardization Organization standards (GCO)(6,7).

The HMF content (mg/kg) of the analyzed samples ranged from not-detected to 565.2 with a mean value of 95.50±20.10. A total of 19 samples (42%) had values (51.3-565) that were higher than the maximum limits allowed by the International and GCO legislation ≥40 to 80 mg/kg(6). In addition, there were significant differences (p<0.05) between samples in terms of HMF content. Furthermore, total reducing sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose) ranged from 50.15 to 72.11%, with a mean value of 64.21%±1.10. The glucose-to-fructose ratio was < 1.0. In comparison with international and GCO standards, the total glucose, fructose, and sucrose was ≥ 60%(7). The water content of the honey samples ranged from 10 to 13.5 (mean = 11.50) that were within the official limit (>20%)(8). In addition, the acidity level (meq/kg) in all the analyzed samples was between 7 and 13, with a mean value of 7.93±0.10. All samples had values that were within acceptable limits (50 meq/kg)(8).

A considerable share of Yemeni Sidir honey in Jeddah does not meet recognized quality criteria, likely due to adulteration or poor storage. This study recommends promoting high-quality honey to benefit consumers by classifying honey in the Saudi market using physicochemical parameters, prohibiting unlabeled honey, and implementing clear GCO policies on imported honey.

Most fortified foods use synthetic or non-food sources of vitamins and minerals, as opposed to organic ones from plants, fungi, and algae. Synthetic vitamins are not always identical in shape and structure(1), and may lack the synergistic compounds present in micronutrients from plant extracts. The fortification of foods with organic micronutrients may offer advantages in consumer preference and sustainability(2), but adoption has been limited due to a lack of evidence on their absorption and utilisation compared with synthetic ones. This pilot study aims to characterise the acute and moderate-term changes in blood vitamin and mineral concentrations in response to organic or synthetic micronutrient supplementation in healthy individuals.

This was a single-blind, randomised interventional trial involving up to 61 healthy volunteers ([Mean ± SD] 34M:27F, 33.2 ± 10.6 years, BMI 25.6 ± 4.5 kg.m-2 ). Participants were split into two arms: one consumed an organic supplement supplied by BIOVIT (ORG), and the other a synthetic one (SYN). The study included a 2-hour ingestion trial and a 28-day ingestion trial. Both supplements contained the equivalent dosing for 12 micronutrients at 60% recommended intake (RI). Venous blood samples were collected at baseline; fasting (TP1) and 2-hour post supplement ingestion (TP2), and a fasting sample was collected post 28 days of supplementation (TP28). Blood samples were centrifuged upon collection and stored as plasma or sera for analysis of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Vitamin-B7, Vitamin-B9, Vitamin-B12, Vitamin-C, and Vitamin-D. Secondary variables of participant health, such as blood lipids and glucose, anthropometry, and cognition, were taken on both visits. Data was analysed via repeated measures-ANOVA with Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons to assert changes in variables over time against conditions (P<0.05 was deemed statistically significant).

There were no significant differences in the change in nutrient levels over time between ORG and SYN supplement groups from either the 2-hour or 28-day ingestion studies. For the 28-day study, both supplement groups saw significant increases in B9 (5.73 vs 7.23 µg/L; F=5.46, p<0.05) and B7 (1.432 vs 1.938 nmol/L; F=5.36, p<0.05) from TP1 to TP28, but no other significant differences were found. There were no significant differences in the change in other health measures over time between ORG and SYN supplement groups.

Circulatory levels of key vitamins and minerals are complementary in both organic and synthetic-based supplements in both an acute (2-hour post ingestion) and moderate-term (28-day ingestion) supplementation. Findings indicate that organic vitamin and mineral supplements offer a comparable bioavailability to synthetic ones. This may have great significance for the future utilisation of organic vitamins and minerals in foods, drinks, and supplements.

Dietary factors, particularly nut consumption, play an important role in health outcomes. Nuts, including almonds, have been studied for their cardiovascular benefits due to their nutrient density, favourable lipid profiles, and antioxidant content(1). Their high content of unsaturated fats, fibre, vitamin E, riboflavin, and magnesium may also exert neuroprotective effects and support mood regulation. Despite evidence linking overall nut consumption to cognitive and mood outcomes(2-3), research examining the impact of nuts on mental health—and almonds specifically—remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to examine associations between almond intake and a range of mental health outcomes in the ZOE PREDICT 3 cohort.

We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 163,015 UK and US participants with complete dietary, mental health, and covariate data from the ZOE PREDICT 3 cohort (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04735835). Almond intake was assessed via food frequency questionnaire and analysed both as a continuous variable (g/day) and as categorical groups (none; tertiles 1–3 defined separately for the UK and US sub-cohorts). Mental health outcomes included a composite measure of overall mental health, broader subcategories of psychiatric/psychological and neurological/neurodegenerative conditions, 17 specific DSM-5 diagnostic categories, and a composite comorbidity measure. Associations were evaluated using Firth logistic regression to address rare outcomes and separation issues, adjusting for demographic, lifestyle, clinical and dietary covariates. Trend analyses were performed using median intake per category. All models were corrected for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate (FDR) adjustment.

In fully adjusted models, higher almond intake, when modelled continuously (g/day, including non-consumers), was associated with lower odds of neurological/neurodegenerative conditions (n=5,721; OR=0.94; 95% CI:0.91–0.97; FDR p < 0.001), but showed no association with psychiatric outcomes (n=25,025; OR=0.998; 95% CI:0.99–1.01; FDR p=0.68). However, categorical analyses indicated a small but consistent dose–response trend, with higher almond intake associated with slightly lower odds of psychiatric conditions per category increase relative to non-consumers (OR=0.995; 95% CI:0.991–0.999; p=0.009). Subtype analyses showed that higher almond intake was associated with lower odds of anxiety disorders (n=7,360; OR=0.94; 95% CI:0.91–0.97; FDR p < 0.001) and somatic symptom disorders (n=462; OR=0.97; 95% CI:0.95–0.99; FDR p=0.03). Associations with depressive disorders (n=11,696; OR=0.98; 95% CI:0.96–0.997; unadjusted p=0.03; FDR p=0.16) and obsessive–compulsive disorders (n=590; OR=0.91; 95% CI:0.83–0.998; unadjusted p=0.045; FDR p=0.19) were nominally significant but did not survive FDR correction. No associations were observed for other mental health subtypes.

These findings suggest that almond intake is associated with a reduced likelihood of anxiety-related conditions and support the inclusion of almonds as part of a healthy diet. As this study is cross-sectional, causal inference is not possible. Ongoing work will investigate underlying mechanisms, including gut–microbiome pathways, while future longitudinal studies are needed to establish causality.

The cardiometabolic health effects of repeatedly heated culinary seed oils are uncertain. The process of heating oils high in polyunsaturated fatty acids causes lipid peroxidation and can generate potentially harmful compounds that may impair vascular function(1–3). This study investigated the acute impact of a high-fat meal containing either repeatedly heated or unheated sunflower oil–palm olein blend on postprandial lipid responses and vascular function in healthy men.

In a randomised, single-blind, crossover study, 19 healthy men (mean age 22.4 ± 3.7y; BMI 22.6 ± 2.3 kg/m2) consumed test meals containing 50 g of either repeatedly heated or unheated oil on separate days with at least a one-week washout. Heated oil underwent commercial deep-frying conditions for 10 consecutive days. Postprandial measurements were collected at baseline, 3 h, and 4 h and included plasma triacylglycerols (TAG), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose, vitamin E, flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and arterial stiffness indices (peripheral and central augmentation indices). Standardised low-fat meals and abstinence from exercise, alcohol, and caffeine preceded each test day. Data were analysed using repeated-measures ANOVA, with Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc tests. Ethical approval was obtained from King’s College Ethics Committee (CREC/06/07-45).

Postprandial TAG responses were significantly lower following the heated oil meal compared to the unheated oil at 3 h (1.6 [1.3–1.9] vs. 2.0 [1.6–2.4] mmol/L, P < 0.001) and 4 h (1.8 [1.5–2.1] vs. 2.3 [1.8–2.7] mmol/L, P < 0.001). There were no differences in the postprandial change in NEFA or glucose between meals. Plasma vitamin E concentrations did not differ significantly between meals or time points. FMD% remained unchanged after both meals and was not different between meals. Arterial stiffness decreased postprandially, as indicated by reductions in PAIx and CAIx, but was not affected by oil type (PAIx: –17.7% [–25.5, –10.0] heated; –18.5% [–27.4, –9.7] unheated; CAIx: –47.4% [–52.0, –42.8] heated; –46.3% [–53.1, –39.4] unheated; p < 0.001 for time)

Both heated and unheated oil meals elicited the expected postprandial increase in plasma TAG, although the rise was attenuated following the heated oil meal. Vascular function and arterial stiffness showed similar responses between meals. Repeatedly heating oil alters postprandial lipid responses but does not acutely impair vascular function. Further controlled trials with larger sample sizes, detailed characterisation of oil degradation products, and extended postprandial monitoring are needed to clarify the metabolic and vascular effects of repeatedly heated oils.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) have emerged as breakthrough weight loss agents(1,2). However, discontinuation is common(3), and clinical trials have demonstrated significant weight regain following cessation(4,5). In this systematic review, we aimed to characterise the trajectory of weight regain after GLP-1RA cessation.

This study followed Cochrane and PRISMA guidelines. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, Scopus and Web of Science from inception to 26/12/2024 for studies reporting weight outcomes after GLP-1RA cessation in overweight/obese adults. Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or observational studies; participants had treatment for ≥8 weeks and a post-cessation follow-up ≥4 weeks, and studies could not include co-treatment with other FDA-approved weight loss drugs. Weight regain was the primary outcome. Randomised studies with n≥100, which reported on-treatment weight loss ≥3kg with ≥2 post-cessation datapoints or 1 datapoint after 12 weeks, were included in a meta-regression analysis in which percentage weight-regain was modelled as a function of time. Exponential recovery model fit was assessed with root mean square error (RMSE) and Akaike information criterion (AIC). Inverse-variance weighting was applied using the standard error of the mean of each observation. Secondary outcomes included HbA1c and systolic blood pressure (SBP). Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool for RCTs and the Cochrane ROBINS-I tool for non-randomised studies. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO (CRD420250631751).

We identified 44 relevant studies; most were assessed to have moderate risk of bias. Treatment duration spanned 10-104 weeks and post-cessation follow-up spanned 4-104 weeks. Weight consistently rebounded after cessation of GLP-1RAs. 6 trials with 3236 participants were included in the exponential recovery model to characterise weight regain. Weight regain was estimated to plateau at 75.6% (95% CI 68.5-82.7) of weight lost on treatment. The rate constant was 0.0302 per week (95% CI 0.0204-0.0399), corresponding to a 23.0 week half-life. At 1 year after cessation, an estimated 40.2% of the on-treatment weight loss remained. Post-cessation HbA1c was reported by 21 studies. Virtually all observed post-cessation increases in HbA1c. In most cases, around half the initial reduction appeared to be regained by 8 to 12 weeks after cessation. The extent and timing of this varied significantly between studies. Post-cessation SBP was reported by 18 studies. After cessation of treatment, SBP typically rebounded towards the pre-treatment baseline, with most studies reporting that around 70 to 80% of the initial reduction was regained within 12 weeks.

GLP-1RA cessation is associated with a predictable and decelerating pattern of weight regain, which appears to plateau below pre-treatment levels, suggesting that partial weight-loss benefit may persist long-term but is substantially attenuated.

The milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), an integral part of the dairy matrix, is rich in bioactive milk polar lipids (MPLs) (primarily phospholipids and sphingolipids) and proteins(1,2). MFGM is well-preserved in dairy fractions that retain native milk fat globules(2). It can also be recovered from dairy side-streams such as MFGM-enriched whey protein concentrates(3). Growing evidence suggests that MFGM, or membrane-associated MPLs, may beneficially modulate cardiometabolic disease (CMD) risk, particularly through effects on blood lipid regulation(2). This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesises current evidence on MFGM/MPL consumption and its effects on CMD risk markers, including lipid profiles and blood pressure (BP) in disease-free adults.

This review followed PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO: CRD42025636269). PubMed (Medline), Cochrane Central and Embase databases were searched, with supplementary searches continued until 23 September 2025. Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in weight-stable adults (≥18 y), either healthy or at CMD risk, comparing food- or supplement-based MFGM/MPL interventions with isoenergetic, low-MFGM/MPL comparators. Outcomes assessed included fasting plasma/serum lipids and BP. Data were pooled using inverse-variance random-effects meta-analysis with Hartung-Knapp adjustment and expressed as weighted mean differences (WMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Heterogeneity was assessed using I2. Risk of bias (RoB) was evaluated using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool. Subgroup analyses were conducted by baseline health status: healthy vs at-risk [defined as overweight/obesity and/or with elevated circulating LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C)].

Of the 728 citations identified, 13 studies (reported across 14 articles) were included, of which 12 were supplement-based. RoB assessment rated ten trials with some concerns and four as low risk. Pooled analysis of 10 RCTs indicated that MFGM/MPL consumption significantly reduced total cholesterol (TC) (WMD: -0.18 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.30, -0.06; I2 = 0%); LDL-C (WMD: -0.12 mmol/L; 95% CI -0.22, -0.03; I2 = 0%) and TC:HDL ratio (WMD: -0.17; CI: -0.33, -0.01; I2 = 9%; n = 6). No significant effects were observed for HDL-cholesterol, triacylglycerol (TAG) concentrations (n = 10), or systolic/diastolic BP (n = 5). Subgroup analyses by health status revealed no differences in cholesterol profile or BP. However, TAG lowering was evident in the ‘at-risk’ subgroup (WMD: -0.20 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.34, -0.06; I2 = 0%), but not in healthy individuals (WMD: -0.01 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.17, 0.14; I2 = 41%), indicating a possible differential response by health status.

Overall, these findings support a modest cholesterol-lowering effect of MFGM/MPL consumption, with low heterogeneity across trials, consistent with its proposed role in cardiovascular risk reduction. Although no significant effects were observed for TAG concentrations overall, subgroup analyses suggest a potential TAG-lowering effect in individuals at CMD risk. Further large, high-quality RCTs are warranted to confirm effects on other CMD risk markers and explore potential benefits in specific subgroups.